I  J)  H  RICA  TION 


\ND  UlL 


JJJETERICHS 


FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON 


FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  FATS  AND  OILS, 


INCLUDING 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS,  LEATHER  OILS, 
PAINT  OILS,  SOLID  LUBRICANTS  AND  GREASES  ;  MODES  OF 
TESTING  OILS,  AND  THE  APPLICATION  OF  LUBRICANTS. 


BY 

EMIL  F,  DIETERICHS, 

MEMBER  OP  THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE,  PHILADELPHIA,  MEMBER  OF  THE 
NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  STATIONARY  ENGINEERS,  AND  INVENTOR 
OF  THE  DIETERICHS'S  "VALVE-OLEUM  "  LUBRICATING  OILS. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 

810  Walnut  Street. 
1906. 


Copyright,  by 
EMIL  F.  DIETEKICHS, 
-1906. 


PREFACE. 


From  observation  during  a  period  of  nearly 
fifty  years  as  a  practical  Chemist  and  Manufac- 
turer of  Chemical  Products  and  all  kinds  of  Oils, 
and  my  close  connection  with  Engineers  and 
Manufacturers,  and  experience  with  the  endless 
varieties  of  Engines  and  Machinery  in  use,  I  have 
long  felt  the  need  of  some  work  that  would  collec- 
tively treat  in  a  condensed  and  comprehensive 
form  the  subjects  of  Friction,  Lubrication,  the 
origin  and  characteristics  of  Fats  and  Oils,  their 
Uses,  their  Adulterations  and  their  Practical 
Testing,  all  of  such  vital  importance  in  the 
mechanical  world. 

In  the  effort  to  produce  a  book  to  fill  these 
wants  and  make  it  useful  as  well  as  easily  under- 
stood by  Mechanics  and  Manufacturers  not  very 
familiar  with  these  subjects,  I  have  throughout 
avoided  as  much  as  possible  all  scientific  technol- 
ogy, as  well  as  technical  terms  and  theories 
familiar  only  to  the  experienced  chemist,  and 
have  endeavored  to  write  in  such  language  and 
manner  as  can  be  readily  comprehended  by  any- 
body with  an  ordinary  school  education. 

(V) 


vi 


PREFACE. 


I  would  here  take  occasion  to  acknowledge  the 
endorsement  given  to  my  former  writings  and  to 
my  lectures  on  these  subjects,  and  to  the  generous 
patronage  extended  to  my  valve-oleum  "  lubri- 
cating oils. 

My  theories  on  lubrication,  which  led  to  the 
production  of  the  "  valve-oleum "  oils,  at  first 
met  with  much  derision.  But  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  I  have  made  many  efforts  to  arouse, 
by  my  publications  and  lectures,  more  attention 
to,  and  to  elicit  information  upon,  the  subject, 
thus  far  no  sound  argument  has  been  advanced 
to  refute  these  theories  or  to  uphold  those  other 
ones,  older  and  long  persistently  held. 

Should  I  have  been  successful  in  producing 
such  a  treatise  as  will  meet  the  demands  of  the 
time,  and  with  this  faith,  I  hereby  dedicate  this 
volume  to  manufacturers,  and  mechanics,  and  to 
my  brother  engineers  of  the  National  Association 
of  Stationery  Engineers  of  America,  I  shall  feel 
myself  amply  repaid  for  my  labor. 

As  is  the  practice  of  the  publishers,  the  book 
has  been  supplied  with  a  full  table  of  contents 
and  a  thorough,  index,  rendering  reference  to  any 
subject  in  it  prompt  and  accurate. 

E.  F.  DiETERICHS. 

Cleveland,  Ohio, 
September  15, 1906. 


CONTENTS. 


I. 

FRICTION. 

PAGE 

Definition  of  friction;  Various  kinds  of  friction;  Explana- 
tion of  the  laws  of  friction  1 

Moving  force  required  when  wood  on  iron,  iron  on  iron,  or 
iron  on  brass  press  on  each  other;  Co-efficient  of  friction 
and  rule  for  finding  it;  Friction  of  quiescence;  Friction 
of  motion   2 

Rolling  friction;  Traction  of  a  cart  on  a  macadamized  road; 
Traction  on  a  railway  3 

Value  and  usefulness  of  friction ;  Frictional  heat        .       .  4 

II. 

LUBRICATION. 

Necessity  of  lubricating;  What  is  lubricating?    ...  6 

Laws  of  lubrication  as  taught  by  nature;  Lubrication  of  the 
joints  of  the  bones  in  the  body  by  the  joint  water    .       .  6 

Absorption  of  frictional  heat  by  metal;  Effect  of  overheat- 
ing the  bearings      ........  7 

Creation  of  frictional  heat  as  shown  by  Count  Rumford's 
experiments   .8 

Accumulation  and  disposal  of  frictional  heat;  Capacity  of 
inert  matter  for  absorbing  and  carrying  away  frictional 
heat  9 

Necessity  of  renewing  the  lubricant;  Lubricating  a  chem- 
ical process  10 

(vii) 


viii 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  chemical  process  which  takes  place  when  oil  is  used 

for  lubricating   .11 

Why  oil  and  fatty  matters  are  used  for  lubricating  machinery  12 

III. 

OILS  AND  FATS. 

Definition  of  oils;  Classes  of  oils        .       .       ...  .13 

Fixed  oils;  Volatile  or  essential  oils;  Drying  oils;  Non- 
drying  or  fatty  oils;  Vegetable  oils  .....  14 

Animal  oils;  Drying  oils;  Volatile  or  essential  oils     .       .  15 
Mineral  oils  and  petroleum  oils,  and  the  manner  of  obtain- 
ing them  16 

IV. 

OILS  AND  FATS   OF    ANIMAL   AND  VEGETABLE  OEIGTN,  THEIR 
CHARACTERISTICS,  AND  HOW  THEY  ARE  OBTAINED. 

Lard  and  lard  oil;  Preparation  and  properties  of  lard; 
Separation  of  olein  from  lard  ......  18 

Lard  oil  and  its  properties;  Commercial  grades  of  lard  oil; 
Tallow  and  tallow  oil;  Mode  of  obtaining  tallow     .       .  19 

Tallow  oil  and  its  properties  20 

Neatsfoot  oil  and  horse  tallow  oil;  Neatsfoot  oil  and  its  prop- 
erties; Bone  fat,  bone  grease,  or  marrow  tallow       .       .  21 

Horse  tallow  and  its  properties;  Elain  or  red  oil  and  its 


properties       .........  22 

Spermaceti  and  fish  oils;  Spermaceti  23 

Spermaceti,  its  constitution  and  properties  .  .  .  .24 
Sperm  oil  and  its  properties;  Seal  oil  ....  25 
Whale  and  train  oils;  Commercial  fish  oils        .       .  .26 

Wool  fat;  Degras  27 

Factitious  degras;  Constitution  of  degras    .       .       .  .28 

Castor  oil  and  its  properties  29 

Olive  oil  and  its  properties  30 

Sunflower  oil;  Sesame  or  gingelly  oil  ,       ,       ,       .  .31 


CONTENTS. 


ix 


PAGB 

Cottonseed  oil;  Eapeseed  or  colza  oil  32 

Hempseed  oil;  Palm  oil  and  cocoanut  oil  .  .  .  .33 
Copra;  Palm  oil  or  palm  butter  and  its  properties      .       .  34 

Almond  oil;  Poppyseed  oil  35 

Corn  oil  and  mode  of  obtaining  it  36 

Peanut  oil  and  its  properties       ......  37 

Mustardseed  oil;  Nigerseed  oil;  Linseed  oil       .       .       .  38 

Linolein;  Driers  39 

Rosin,  rosin  oil  and  turpentine;  Mode  of  obtaining  rosin  and 

its  properties;  Distillation  of  rosin  oil  .  .  .  .40 
Eosin  or  pine  oil  and  its  properties;  Glycerin  .  .  .41 
Properties  of  glycerin  42 


V. 

CLARIFYING,  REFINING,  AND  BLEACHING  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Various  processes  of  bleaching  vegetable  oils;  Clarifying  oils  43 
Refining  oils  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid;  Refining 


oils  and  fats  with  caustic  soda   44 

Freeing  oils  from  free  fatty  acids;  Bleaching  oils  with  chlorine  45 

Process  for  deodorizing  oil   46 

Bleaching  and  deodorizing  degras       .       .       .       .       .  47 


Cleaning  and  bleaching  tallow  and  other  fat ;  Cleaning  and 
bleaching  and  deodorizing  train  oil;  Bleaching  grease     .  48 

VI. 

MINERAL  OILS. 

Mode  of  obtaining  mineral  oils;  Distillation  of  mineral  oils.  50 
Green  oil;  Paraffine  oil;  Treatment  of  shale  oil    .       .  .51 

Grades  of  illuminating  oils;  Tar  oils  52 

Distillation  of  wood  and  products  obtained  thereby;  Products 

obtained  by  the  distillation  of  tar  from  the  gas  works; 

Difference  between  benzol  and  benzine  .  .  .  .53 
Conversion  of  nitro-benzol  into  anilin  oil ;  Uses  of  coal  tar  .  54 


X 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

VII. 

PETROLEUM  OILS. 

Deposits  of  petroleum  ....... 

Petroleum  oils  of  Pennsylvania;  Ohio  crude  oils  and  mode 

of  desulphurizing  them  

Use    of   aluminium  chloride    for   desulphurizing  Ohio 

petroleum  

Distillation  of  petroleum  

Classification  of  the  proceeds  of  distillation. 
Neutral  distillates  and  their  division  ..... 
Purifying  and  bleaching  the  neutral  oils;  Extraction  of  par- 

affine  wax  from  the  crude  paraffine  oils  .... 
Uses  of  paraffine  wax;  Golden  machine  oil;  Steam  refined 

cylinder  oil;  Production  of  a  good  cylinder  oil  from  crude 

oil  

Black  lubricating  oil  or  West  Virginia  oil;  Filtered  cylinder 

stock;  Vaseline,  cosmoline,  petrolatum;  Petroleum  oils  for 

lubricating  63 

Petroleum  oils  for  various  lubricating  purposes;  Signal  oil 

for  lanterns  64 

Deblooming  petroleum  oils;  Deodorizing  petrol  oil     .       .  65 


55 

56 

57 
58 
59 
60 

61 


VIII. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

Lubricants  for  heavy  pressure  and  low-speed  machinery  67 
Compounding  of  petroleum  oils  to  give  them  a  viscous  con- 
sistency; Compounding  cylinder  oil  68 

Various  fats  and  oils  used  in  the  compounding  of  cylinder 
and  other  oils;  Mode  of  compounding  petroleum  with 

fatty  oils  69 

Use  of  rosin  oils  in  the  compounding  of  lubricating  oils  .  70 
Thickened  oils  .71 


CONTENTS. 


xi 


PAGE 

IX. 

"valve-oleum"  oils. 

Materials  which  form  the  foundation  of  ' '  Valve-Oleum ' '  oils  73 

Preparation  of  oleate  of  alumina   74 

Preparation  of  a  heavy  and  stringy  mineral  castor      .       .  77 
Preparation  of Valve-Oleum  "  engine  and  cylinder  oils    .  78 
Preparation  of  white  "  Valve-Oleum  "  castor  oil,  "  Valve- 
Oleum  "  castoroleum  and  "Valve-Oleum"  linoleum      ,  79 
Mode  of  detecting  oleate  of  alumina  in  mineral  oil      .       .  80 


X. 

LEATHER  OILS. 

Necessity  of  lubricating  leather  belts,  harness,  boot  and 
shoe  leather  81 

"  Valve-Oleum"  leather  preserving  and  water-proofing  oil; 
Oil  for  tanners'  use  82 

Cheap  harness  oil;  Black  harness  oil;  Belt  oil;  Belt  grease  83 

Factitious  paint  oil;  Cheap  paint  oil  .       .       .       .  .84 


XI. 

ADULTERATIONS  OF  FATTY  OILS. 

Materials  used  in  the  adulteration  of  lard  oil,  olive  oil, 

sperm  oil,  and  linseed  oil  85 

Adulteration  of  castor  oil  86 


XII. 


TESTING  OILS. 


Alkali  tests  for  detecting  the  presence  of  a  hydrocarbon  oil 

in  fatty  oils  87 

To  ascertain  the  amount  of  mineral  oil  in  fatty  oils;  Color  test  88 


xii 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Test  for  cottonseed  oil  in  lard  oil;  Preliminary  test  for  neu- 
tral oil  in  lard  oil  89 

To  detect  small  quantities  of  fatty  oils  in  a  sample  of  min- 
eral oil;  To  detect  soap  dissolved  in  mineral  oil;  To  de- 
tect acidity  or  alkali  in  mineral  oil  90 

Simple  and  practical  methods  for  testing  oils  and  oil  mixtures  91 

Detection  of  the  admixture  of  petroleum  oil  in  large  propor- 
tion to  fatty  oils  92 

Mode  of  ascertaining  with  what  proportion  of  petroleum  a 
fatty  oil  has  been  adulterated  93 

Mode  of  telling  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  fatty  oils,  even 
in  very  small  proportions;  Means  employed  to  prevent  de- 
tection of  adulteration  of  fatty  oils  by  the  hydrometer  test.  94 

Testing  the  comparative  efficiency  of  oils  for  lubricating;  To 
ascertain  the  gumming  propensities  of  an  oil;  Viscosity, 


and  modes  of  ascertaining  it   95 

Fire  test   96 

Simple  way  of  testing  lubricating  oils  .       .       ...  97 

Practical  tests  of  lubricating  oils   98 

Necessity  of  cleaning  cylinders  and  bearings  before  testing 

or  using  a  new  oil   99 


Advantage  of  the  stringy  character  of  "  Valve  Oleum  "  oils.  100 


XIII. 

SOLID  LUBRICANTS.  GREASES. 

Constitution  of  solid  lubricants  and  their  application;  Con- 
stitution of  grease   101 

Character  of  machinery  for  which  lubricating  grease  is  used ; 
Wear  and  abrasion  of  the  metal  with  grease  lubricants    .  102 

Manufacture  of  greases  103 

Preparation  of  lime  paste  for  rosin  grease;  Manufacture  of 
rosin  grease  in  the  cold  way  104 

Formulas  after  which  nearly  all  grease  lubricants  are  manu- 
factured; Preparation  of  a  "  cup  grease"        .       .       .  105 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

Dark  axle  grease;  Linseed  oil  grease  106 

Various  receipts  107 

XIV. 

SOME  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

Cause  of  injuries  to  a  cylinder  109 


Lubrication  not  effected  by  inert  matters;  Decomposition  of 
all  fatty  oils  and  fats  by  the  absorption  of  steam  and  fric- 
tional  heat;  Injurious  action  from  the  use  of  tallow  in 
cylinders.  110 

Formation  of  marble-like  balls  by  the  motion  of  the  piston; 
Consequences  of  the  softening  and  dissolving  of  hardened 
deposits  Ill 

Injury  to  cylinders  caused  by  poor  packing;  Other  causes  of 
cutting  and  scarring  of  the  metal    .       .       .       .  .112 

Necessity  of  keeping  clean  and  carefully  examining  the 
parts  of  machinery  where  oil  is  used  for  lubricating.       ,  113 

XV. 

LUBRICATORS  AND  CUPS. 

Trouble  caused  to  engineers  by  lubricators;  Pumps  for  ap- 


plying cylinder  oils  114 

Automatic  pumps;  The  "Moses  pump;"  Feeding  cylinder 

oil  through  the  sight-feed  cup  115 

Consequences  of  cleaning  the  cup  by  blowing  live  steam 

through  it;  Cleaning  sight-feed  cups  ....  116 
Kegulating  the  flow  of  oil  in  the  cups  .  .  .  .117 
Cups  feeding  with  a  wick;  Oils  to  be  used  in  cups  exposed 

to  varying  temperatures  118 

Cups  for  feeding  grease  119 

Only  reliable  lubricating  with  grease  120 


xiv 


CONTENTS. 


XVI. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Definition  of  specific  gravity;  Standard  for  solid  and  liquid 
bodies;  Mode  of  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids 
by  means  of  the  specific  gravity  bottle     ....  121 

Use  of  the  Baum^  hydrometer;  Table  of  Baum^  degrees, 
the  specific  gravity  they  represent,  and  the  corresponding 
weight  of  the  liquids  per  gallon  122 

Index  127 


I. 


FRICTION. 

The  force  which  is  felt  to  resist  the  motion 
when  one  body  rubs  against  another  while  in 
motion  is  called  friction.  Of  all  mechanical 
power  used,  a  large  amount  is  spent  or  lost  to 
overcome  the  obstructive  force  of  friction,  and 
means  are  looked  for  to  reduce  this  as  much  as 
possible.  Friction  is  either  sliding  or  rolling. 
The  laws  regarding  friction  are  explained  as 
follows  : 

When  placing  a  block  of  wood  or  iron  on  a 
smooth  surface  of  wood  or  metal,  it  requires  a 
force  of  some  two-fifths  of  the  weight  of  the  block 
to  make  it  move  along  the  surface,  thereby  indi- 
cating the  friction  between  the  surfaces,  as  has 
been  established  by  carefully  conducted  experi- 
ments. It  has  been  established  that  two  such 
blocks  placed  on  the  plate  side  by  side,  so  as  to 
form  one  of  double  size,  require  double  the  force  to 
1 


2        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

move  them,  and  when  the  blocks  are  placed  on 
top  of  each  other,  there  is  no  difference  in  the 
amount  of  force  necessary  to  move  them.  The 
friction  between  any  two  surfaces  increases  in 
proportion  to  the  force  with  which  they  are 
pressed  together,  regardless  of  the  extent  of  the 
surface  in  contact.  A  difference,  however,  exists 
when  wood  on  iron,  iron  on  iron  or,  iron  on  brass 
press  on  each  other.  For  oakwood  on  iron,  the 
moving  force  required  is  about  two-fifths,  or  ex- 
actly thirty-eight  per  cent;  for  iron  on  iron  forty- 
four  per  cent,  and  for  cast-iron  upon  brass  about 
twenty-two  per  cent,  in  a  dry  state  and  without 
lubrication.  The  proportion  expressed  between 
the  pressure  of  two  surfaces  and  their  friction  is 
called  their  co-efficient,  and  is  found  by  dividing 
the  power  by  the  weight  moved.  The  friction  of 
quiescence,  or  the  resistance  to  the  commence- 
ment of  motion,  is  greater  than  the  resistance  to 
its  continuance,  and  more  so  if  the  surfaces  have 
for  a  considerable  time  rested  in  contact  with  each 
other.  The  friction  of  motion  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  velocity  of  the  motion.  The  re- 
sistance of  friction  to  a  shaft  turning  in  its  bear- 
ings, or  of  an  axle  in  its  box,  has  evidently  a 


FRICTION. 


3 


greater  leverage  the  thicker  the  journal  or  the 
axle  is,  and  axles  of  wheels  are  accordingly  made 
as  small  as  is  consistent  with  their  required 
strength.  The  resistance  that  takes  place  be- 
tween the  circumference  of  the  wheel  on  the  road 
is  called  ''rolling  friction."  In  front  of  the 
wheel  there  is  always  an  eminence  or  obstacle 
which  it  is  at  every  instant  surmounting  and 
crushing ;  so  also  on  iron  rails,  but  to  a  much 
lesser  extent  than  on  other  roads.  On  the  princi- 
ple of  the  lever,  it  shows  that  a  larger  wheel  has 
the  advantage  over  a  smaller  one,  and  it  has  been 
fully  established  that  on  a  horizontal  road  the 
traction  varies  directly  as  to  the  load,  and  in- 
versely as  to  the  radius  of  the  wheel.  On  a  per- 
fectly good  and  level  macadamized  road,  the 
traction  of  a  cart  is  found  to  be  one-thirtieth  of 
the  load,  so  that  a  horse  to  draw^  a  ton  must  pull 
with  a  force  equal  to  seventy-five  pounds.  On  a 
railway  the  traction  is  reduced  to  one  two-hun- 
dred-and-eightieth  of  the  load,  or  to  eight  pounds 
per  ton.  Friction  is  akin  to  and  as  important  as 
is  gravitation  in  every  motion  in  the  universe. 

While  friction  on  railways  is  diminished, 
further  dimunition  would  stop  motion  entirely,  as 


4       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

the  driving  wheels  of  the  locomotive  would  slide 
around  on  the  rails  without  advancing. 

Friction  is  most  valuable  when  machinery 
with  great  momentum  has  to  be  checked  or  sud- 
denly arrested  in  its  motion,  as  by  a  brake  against 
the  wheels  on  railways.  It  is  useful  in  communi- 
cating motion  by  means  of  belts,  ropes  or  chains ; 
it  is  the  force  that  holds  the  knot  in  the  rope,  and 
it  is  the  power  that  stops  the  momentum  of  cars 
in  rapid  motion.  Friction  is  the  constant  oppo- 
nent of  motion,  which  creates  heat,  which  is 
known  as    Friction al  Heat." 


r 


11. 


LUBRICATION. 

To  overcome  friction  and  put  its  resisting 
power  to  as  low  a  point  as  possible,  we  use  Lubri- 
cants that  can  absorb  the  frictional  heat  and, 
becoming  vaporized  by  it,  will  carry  the  heat 
into  space. 

Lubricating  is  a  necessity,  and  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  mechanical  world.  With- 
out lubrication  all  the  power  we  can  obtain  from 
Steam,  Electricity,  Gas.  Water,  Air  and  Horse 
Power,  Spring  and  Wind  Power  could  be  of  no 
use  to  us,  and  travel  on  railroads  and  steamboats, 
the  running  of  factories,  the  riding  in  automo- 
biles, in  carriages  and  wagons,  the  use  of  sewing 
machines,  the  riding  on  bicycles,  the  keeping 
record  of  time  by  our  watches ;  in  short,  the 
using  of  anything  that  is  dependent  on  mechan- 
ical motion  would  be  utterly  impossible. 

We  have  then  to  investigate,  What  is  Lubri- 
cating?" 

(5) 


G       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Nature  teaches  us  the  laws  of  lubrication  by 
its  wonderful  workings  in  the  human  body  and 
in  the  bodies  of  all  animals.  All  the  joints  of 
the  bones  in  the  body  would  be  useless  and  stiff 
were  it  not  for  their  being  constantly  lubricated 
by  the  so-called  "  Joint  Water,"  an  unctuous 
fluid  which  surrounds  all  the  joints  of  the  skele- 
ton part  of  the  body.  This  ''Joint  Water"  is 
constantly  produced  and  supplied  by  nature,  and 
is  constantly  consumed  by  the  frictional  heat 
created  by  our  exertions  and  movements,  and  is 
likewise  constantly  disposed  of  and  frees  the  body 
from  the  otherwise  accumulating  frictional  heat 
by  transferring  it,  with  the  perspiration  and  ex- 
halations from  the  body,  into  space.  When  the 
recuperating  powers  of  the  body  fail  to  operate 
properly,  from  one  cause  or  another,  the  inflam- 
matory condition  of  the  joints  gives  evidence  of 
the  absence  of  proper  lubrication,  and  the  final 
failing  and  drying  up  of  this  lubricating  ''Joint 
Water  "  under  diminished  generating  power  in 
advanced  age  cause  the  joints  to  move  with  diffi- 
culty and  pain,  and  in  the  end  make  them  lose 
their  usefulness  altogether. 

So  it  is  with  machinery. 


LUBRICATION. 


7 


Whenever  the  surface  of  one  part  of  machinery 
in  motion  is  bearing  on  the  surface  of  another, 
friction  is  created  and  friction  creates  heat. 
This  heat  is  evolved  and  increases  with  the 
velocity  and  continued  motion,  and  if  not  taken 
up  and  carried  away  by  lubrication,  will  finally 
increase  and  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  machinery  will  have  to  be  stopped  to  allow 
the  metal  to  cool  off. 

Metal  is  able  to  absorb  a  large  amount  of  fric- 
tional  heat,  but  it  is  unable  to  free  itself  of  it  as 
fast  as  it  is  generated  by  continued  and  rapid 
motion,  and  the  heat  finally  accumulates  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  overheat  the  bearings,  and  if 
further  continued  will  so  increase  and  expand 
the  metal  as  to  cause  the  parts  to  weld  them- 
selves tightly  together.  This  has  frequently 
been  the  case  with  the  old  style  flour-mill 
spindles,  which,  after  becoming  overheated,  were 
found  to  be  so  tightly  welded  in  their  steps,  that 
they  had  to  be  chiseled  out.  To  avoid  this  we 
have  to  keep  the  revolving  parts  well  lubricated 
in  their  bearings,  and  we  have  to  continue  doing 
this  as  long  as  the  machinery  is  kept  in  motion 
and  in  exact  proportion  to  the  frictional  heat 


8       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

evolved  and  the  amount  of  work  we  expect  to 
have  done. 

That  frictional  heat  is  created  by  motion  and 
that  it  vaporizes  the  lubricant,  is  shown  by  the 
following  convincing  experiments  made  many 
years  ago  by  the  celebrated  scientist.  Count 
Eumford : 

He  had  a  metal  vessel  constructed,  with  hollow 
bottom,  had  a  perpendicular  shaft  fitted  to  it, 
and  had  it  rapidly  moved  by  mechanical  power. 
He  then  filled  the  vessel  with  water,  and  in  the 
course  of  four  hours  ascertained  that  the  water, 
by  the  absorption  of  the  frictional  heat  gen- 
erated, had  attained  a  temperature  of  140°  F., 
and  in  eight  hours  had  reached  the  boiling- 
point.  After  this  he  found  the  water  to  evap- 
orate and  gradually  diminish  in  bulk  as  long  as 
he  kept  the  shaft  in  rapid  motion. 

If  we  now  substitute  oil  for  the  water,  we  will 
find  the  oil  also  gradually  attain  the  temperature 
of  its  evaporating  point,  commonly  known  as 

flash  or  fire  test,"  and  will  find  it  also  to  vapor- 
ize and  gradually  reduce  its  bulk  until  the  shaft 
be  stopped  moving. 

This  shows  conclusively  that  frictional  heat 


LUBRICATION. 


9 


accumulates,  and  that  it  is  disposed  of  by  evapor- 
ating into  space  ;  this  evaporation,  though  con- 
tinuous, is  invisible.  Lubricating,  therefore, 
cannot  be  simply  an  interposition  of  some  sub- 
stance, as  a  sort  of  cushion,  between  the  metallic 
surfaces  of  machinery  in  motion.  Soft  metallic 
compounds,  such  as  plumbago  and  some  of  the 
finer  grades  of  inert  matter,  asbestos,  mica,  sul- 
phur, lime  and  soapstone,  have  been  recom- 
mended and  have  been  tried  for  that  purpose, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  while  all  such  sub- 
stances serve  well,  in  small  quantities,  to  fill  the 
interstices  which  exist  in  all  metallic  surfaces  of 
bearings  however  highly  polished,  and  thereby 
presenting  a  smoother  bedding  for  the  revolving 
shaft,  they  can  only  absorb  as  small  a  portion  of 
the  heat  created  by  the  friction  as  the  metal  itself 
of  which  the  machinery  is  constructed. 

The  capacity  of  plumbago  and  other  inert 
matter  for  absorbing  and  carrying  away  the  fric- 
tional  heat  is  very  low,  as  they  cannot  vaporize, 
while  the  capacity  of  oil  and  fatty  matter  is  very 
great,  and  we  are,  therefore,  compelled  to  use  oil 
and  fatty  matter  for  lubricating. 

If  lubricating  would  be  simply  a  mechanical 


10     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

action  and  a  cushion  of  soft  metal  or  other  inert 
matter,  or  of  oil  or  fat,  would  be  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  gradual  increase  and  accumulation  of 
frictional  heat,  then  a  very  limited  amount  of  oil, 
fat  or  other  inert  matter,  once  applied,  should  be 
sufficient.  We  find,  however,  that  we  are  obliged 
to  renew  the  lubricant  with  regularity  and  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  frictional  heat  created  by 
the  motion,  and  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  work  we  expect  to  do,  and  we  have  to  do  this 
as  long  as  the  machinery  is  kept  in  motion. 

We  have  then  to  ask  :  What  has  become  of  the 
large  quantities  of  oil  which  we  were  compelled 
to  constantly  apply  to  the  bearings  of  the  ma- 
chinery ? 

As  coal  and  water  are  constantly  consumed  to 
keep  the  supply  of  steam  up  to  move  the  ma- 
chinery, so  is  oil  constantly  consumed  to  draw 
the  frictional  heat  away  from  the  bearings.  We 
can  see  how  the  coal  and  water  are  consumed, 
but  we  are  unable  to  see  how  the  oil  is  con- 
sumed. We  can,  however,  find  silent  proof  that 
it  is  so,  and  that  lubricating  is  a  strictly  chemical 
process  and  not  a  mechanical  one. 

We  know  that  metal  cannot  absorb  oil,  and 


LUBRICATION. 


11 


we  allow  most  liberally  for  all  possible  wasting 
and  for  transformation  of  much  of  it  into  gummy 
accumulations  around  the  bearings  and  in  cylin- 
ders, we  must  admit  that  a  very  limited  number 
of  gallons  from  every  barrel  of  oil  used  could 
thus  be  accounted  for,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen 
what  has  become  of  the  balance. 

We  well  know  at  what  temperature  water  is 
evaporated  and  converted  into  steam,  and  after 
serving  its  purpose  to  move  the  machinery  is  lost 
into  space.  Precisely  the  same  chemical  process, 
the  transformation  from  a  fluid  into  a  gaseous 
state,  takes  place  when  oil  is  used  for  lubricating. 

When  the  oil  becomes  heated  by  the  frictional 
heat  until  its  evaporating  temperature  is  reached, 
it  becomes,  like  steam,  a  gas,  and  is  lost  into 
space  with  the  heat  it  has  absorbed. 

This  transformation  takes  place  on  every  bear- 
ing, although  on  so  small  a  scale  as  to  be  almost 
entirely  imperceptible  to  our  senses.  Where  the 
revolving  shaft  rests  heaviest  in  the  hollow  of  the 
bearing,  there  is  the  line  to  be  drawn  where  this 
invisible  transformation  of  the  oil  from  the 
liquid  into  the  gaseous  state  takes  place.  This 
line  is  exceedingly  small — perhaps  no  more  than 


12     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

the  thickness  of  the  finest  sheet  of  paper — but  on 
this  small  line  the  frictional  heat  starts  to  be 
generated,  and  being  taken  up  by  a  few  atoms  of 
the  oil  at  a  time,  is  carried  with  their  vapors 
into  space.  When  from  neglect  or  insufficient 
lubrication  bearings  become  overheated,  and 
under  the  rapidly  increasing  temperature  the 
few  particles  of  oil  vaporize  too  fast  and  become 
decomposed  under  the  increased  heat,  the  arising 
vapors,  with  a  penetrating  burning  smell,  prove 
to  us  the  slow  and  mysterious  process  by  which 
the  oil  disappears. 

Lubricating  is,  therefore,  a  chemical  process, 
and  requires  the  interposing  of  such  substances 
between  the  moving  parts  of  machinery  as  are 
qualified  to  absorb  the  frictional  heat,  and 
vaporized  by  it,  carry  it  into  space.  Such  quali- 
fications are  best  possessed  by  oil  and  fatty  mat- 
ter, and  we,  therefore,  use  them  for  lubricating 
our  machinery. 

A  continuous  stream  of  water  or  the  applica- 
tion of  ice  will  likewise  absorb  and  vaporize  with 
the  frictional  heat,  but  not  possessing  sufficient 
adhesive  body,  cannot  prevent  the  gradual 
abrasion  of  the  metal. 


III. 


OILS  AND  FATS. 

The  next  question  arises  :  What  are  oils  and 
what  is  fatty  matter?  What  are  their  character- 
istics, and  from  what  sources  of  nature  do  they 
come,  and  how  are  they  obtained  ?  » 

Oils  are  liquid  and  semi-solid  substances,  de- 
rived from  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  king- 
doms. They  are  unctuous  to  the  touch,  are 
insoluble  in  water,  and  possess  the  power  of 
supporting  combustion  with  flame.  They  are 
obtained  from  the  roots,  seeds,  fruits  and  flowers 
of  plants  and  trees,  and  from  the  fat  of  animals, 
by  extraction,  by  pressure,  by  rendering,  by  boil- 
ing with  water,  or  by  distillation.  They  are  also 
obtained  from  the  mineral  kingdom,  from  shale, 
and  out  of  receptacles  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

Oils  are  divided  into  two  classes :  They  are 
either  oxyhydro-carbons,  that  is,  compounds  of 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon,  and  are  known  as 
(13) 


14     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

"  fixed  oils,"  or  they  are  hydro-carbons,  composed 
of  hydrogen  and  carbon  only,  and  are  known  as 
volatile  or  essential  oils.  The  ''fixed  oils"  do 
not  sensibly  evaporate  at  ordinary  temperature. 
They  stain  paper  permanently  and  render  it 
translucent.  They  do  not  distil  or  evaporate  at 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  they  have 
only  a  faint  odor,  like  that  of  the  substance  from 
which  they  have  been  extracted.  The  volatile  or 
essential  oils  evaporate  freely.  They  have  a 
caustic,  acrid  taste  and  an  aromatic  odor,  and 
when  distilled  with  water  the}^  pass  over  at 
212°  F. 

All  of  the  "fixed  oils"  have  an  attraction 
more  or  less  powerful  for  oxygen.  Exposed  to 
the  atmosphere,  some  of  them  become  hard  and 
resinous,  and  they  are  called  "  drying  oils ;" 
others  thicken  only  slightly  and  become  sour  and 
rancid,  and  they  are  known  as  non-drying  or 
"fatty  oils."  The  fatty  oils  in  general  use  for 
lubricating  and  in  the  manufacture  of  Lubricating 
Oils  are  : 

Vegetable  Oils:  Olive  Oil,  Rapeseed  Oil  or 
Colza  Oil,  Cocoanut  Oil,  Palm  Oil  and  Almond 
Oil,  and  many  others  seldom  used  for  lubricating. 


OILS  AND  FATS. 


15 


Animal  Oils :  Lard  Oil,  Tallow  Oil,  Neatsfoot 
Oil,  Wool  Fat,  Sperm  Oil  and  the  many  varieties 
of  Fish  Oils. 

For  lubricating  purposes  these  oils,  vegetable 
as  well  as  animal,  are  largely  compounded  with 
mineral  oils  of  all  grades  and  colors  and  in  end- 
less proportions. 

Drying  Oils,  more  or  less,  are:  Lindseed  Oil, 
Nut  Oil,  Poppy  Oil,  Hempseed  Oil,  Castor  Oil, 
Cottonseed  Oil  and  Rosin  Oil.  Some  of  them 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  greases  for  lubri- 
cating purposes,  but  all  of  them  are  unfit  for 
lubricating  machinery  on  accout  of  their  resinous 
nature. 

The  volatile  or  essential  oils  are  :  The  Oils  of 
Amber,  Bergamot,  Cloves,  Lemon,  Rose,  Orange 
Flower  and  many  others,  all  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  They  are  usually  more  lim- 
pid and  less  unctuous  than  the  fatty  oils,  with 
which  they  mix  in  all  proportions.  They  are 
more  or  less  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  are 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  to  which,  however, 
they  impart  their  peculiar  flavor.  Nearly  all  the 
volatile  oils  resist  saponification,  and  do  not  com- 
bine with  the  alkaline  bases  to  form  soapy  com- 


16     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

pounds.  They  are  not  used  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses. 

The  Mineral  Oils  and  the  Petroleum  Oils  are 
Hydro-carbons,  and  belong  to  the  class  of  volatile 
and  essential  oils.  They  have  little  affinity  for 
oxygen  or  moisture.  They  will  not  saponify,  and 
they  do  not  ferment  or  become  rancid.  The 
Mineral  Oils  are  derived  from  bituminous  coal 
and  shale  by  distillation,  and  have  been  entirly 
superseded  by  the  Petroleum  Oils  since  the  utili- 
zation of  the  latter. 

The  Mineral  Oils  obtained  by  distillation  of 
coal  tar,  which  is  the  product  of  the  dry  de- 
structive distillation  of  coal  at  gas  works,  are 
chiefly  used  for  dissolving  rubber,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  beautiful  aniline  colors,  and  in 
making  printing  inks,  varnishes  and  paints. 

The  Petroleum  Oils  have  been  placed  by  nature 
within  easy  reach  of  mankind,  and  have  been  of 
great  use  for  lighting,  heating  and  lubricating 
purposes.  In  their  natural  state  they  are  found 
in  all  forms  of  consistency,  from  a  solid  to  a  thin 
oily  liquid,  and  from  the  darkest  to  the  lighest 
shades  of  color.  This  peculiar  product  of  nature 
is  composed  of  endless  series  of  Hydro-carbon 


OILS  AND  FATS. 


17 


compounds,  from  a  light,  incondensible  gas,  to  a 
solid  body.  They  are  similar  in  characteristics 
to  the  Mineral  Oils  obtained  from  coal  tar  and 
shale,  but  differ  materially  in  their  chemical 
composition. 
2 


IV. 


OILS  AND  FATS  OF  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE 
ORIGIN,  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS  AND 
HOW  THEY  ARE  OBTAINED. 

Lard  and  Lard  Oil. 
Lard  is  the  prepared  fat  of  the  hog.  The  fat 
freed  frora  membranous  matter  is  cut  up  into 
small  pieces  and  boiled  with  water.  It  is  then 
carefully  separated  from  the  water  and  melted 
over  a  slow  fire.  Lard  is  a  soft,  white,  unctuous 
fat,  with  a  faint  odor,  is  free  from  rancidity  and 
has  a  bland  taste  and  a  neutral  reaction.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  about  0.938,  or  about  20°  to 
21°  by  Baume's  hydrometer.  Lard  is  entirely 
soluble  in  ether,  in  benzine,  and  in  disulphide  of 
carbon.  It  melts  at  or  near  95°  F.,  and  when 
melted  it  readily  unites  with  oils,  wax  or  resins. 
Like  most  animal  fats,  it  consists  of  stearin, 
palmitin  and  olein.  Olein,  the  liquid  principle 
of  lard,  can  be  readily  separated  from  the  stearin 
(18) 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  19 


and  palmitin  by  subjecting  it,  at  a  cold  tempera- 
ture, to  strong  pressure,  when  the  liquid  olein  is 
pressed  out,  leaving  the  solid  stearin,  which  is 
principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  stearin 
candles.  Exposed  long  to  the  air,  lard  and 
lard  oil  will  absorb  oxygen  and  become  rancid. 
Lard  oil  as  obtained  from  lard  is  a  colorless  or 
pale  yellowish  oily  liquid ;  it  becomes  opaque  at 
or  below  the  temperature  of  32°  F.  It  has  a 
slightly  fatty  odor  and  a  bland  taste.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  from  0.900  to  0.920,  or  from  22^ 
to  24°  by  Baume's  hydrometer.  It  contains 
varying  proportions  of  stearin,  and  is  much 
adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil  and  refined 
petroleum  neutral  oils.  Lard  oil  is  sold  in  the 
market  as  "  Extra  Winter  Strained "  lard  oil 
when  obtained  by  pressure  at  a  cold  tempera- 
ture ;  as  "  No.  1  "  when  pressed  at  a  warmer 
temperature,  and  as  No.  2 "  when  obtained 
from  impurer  lard,  and  by  the  rendering  pro- 
cess. The  better  qualities  are  often  used  to 
adulterate  olive  oil. 


Tallow  and  Tallow  Oil. 
Tallow  is  obtained  from  the  fat  of  sheep  and 


20     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

oxen.  It  is  prepared  by  cutting  the  fat  into 
pieces,  melting  it  at  moderate  heat  and  straining 
through  coarse  cloth.  It  is  sometimes  previously 
purified  by  boiling  with  a  little  water.  Mutton 
fat  is  of  a  firmer  consistency,  and  fuses  at  a  higher 
temperature  than  fat  from  other  animals.  Tallow 
is  very  w^hite,  sometimes  brittle ;  it  is  inodorous, 
has  a  bland  taste,  and  is  insoluble  in  w^ater.  It 
consists  of  about  seventy  per  cent  of  stearin  and 
palmitin  and  thirty  per  cent  of  olein.  It  grad- 
ually dissolves  in  two  parts  of  benzine,  from 
which  it  slowly  separates  in  a  crystalline  form  on 
standing.  It  melts  between  113°  and  122°  F.  and 
congeals  between  98°  and  104°  F.  Its  specific 
gravity  lies  between  0.937  and  0.952  or  18°  to 
20°  by  Baume's  hydrometer. 

Tallow  oil,  i.  e.,  the  percentage  of  liquid  olein 
in  tallow,  is  obtained  by  melting  the  tallow  and 
keeping  it  in  a  warm  room  at  a  temperature  of 
about  80°  to  90°  F.  for  some  hours ;  the  stearin 
which  the  tallow  contains  crystallizes  in  a  granu- 
lar form,  and  in  this  state  it  is  placed  in  canvas 
or  hair-cloth  bags  and  subjected  to  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  olein  is  thus  separated  from  the 
stearin.    It  still  contains  stearin  in  various  pro- 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  21 


portions,  and  the  oil  is  of  more  or  less  fluidity, 
and  for  that  reason  its  specific  gravity  varies 
from  0.911  to  0.915,  or  from  23°  to  24°  by 
Baume's  hydrometer. 

Tallow  oil  is  of  an  almost  white  color  when 
cold,  or,  at  the  most,  of  a  faint  yellow  tint.  It 
has  a  slight  odor  of  animal  fat.  Varying  with 
its  quality,  it  has  a  flash  point  of  from  475°  to 
500°  F. 

Neatsfoot  Oil  and  Horse  Tallow  Oil. 

Neatsfoot  oil  is  obtained  from  the  feet  of  cows, 
sheep  and  horses.  The  hoofs  are  trimmed  and 
boiled  in  w-ater,  when  the  oil  collects  on  the  sur- 
face and  is  skimmed  ofi^,  and  is  further  purified 
by  repeated  boiling  with  water.  Neatsfoot  oil 
appears  either  as  a  turbid  or  a  limpid  liquid  of  a 
yellows-brownish  color,  has  a  pleasant  odor  and  a 
sweet  taste,  and  has  little  tendency  to  become 
rancid  ;  it  becomes  solid  in  cold  weather  from 
deposition  of  stearin,  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  0.912  or  23°  Baume  at  60°  F.,  and  solidi- 
fies at  about  32°  to  33°  F. 

Bone  fat,  bone  grease  or  marrow  tallow  comes 
from  the  shank  bones  of  cows,  bullocks  and 
horses.    They  are  either  boiled  in  water,  and  the 


22     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

rising  oil  skimmed  off,  or  they  are  subjected  to 
steam  heat  of  from  50  to  60  pounds  pressure  in 
digesters  for  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour.  At 
the  end  of  the  operation  the  fat  is  drawn  off. 

Horse  tallow,  or  fat  obtained  from  the  render- 
ing of  dead  horses,  is  much  like  the  tallow  ob- 
tained from  cows  and  sheep,  and  under  pressure 
furnishes  an  oil  which  is  known  in  the  market 
as  horse  tallow  oil,  and  is  often  sold  under  the 
name  of  ^' Neatsfoot  Oil."  It  has  at  60°  F.  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.915  to  0.980,  or  22°  Baume. 

Elain  or  Red  Oil. 
The  oil  known  as  elain  or  red  oil  gets  its 
name  from  the  dark  reddish  color  it  derives  from 
its  contact  with  the  hot  iron  press  plates  and  the 
high  temperature  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  its 
production  by  the  saponification  process  with 
lime  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  high  steam  pressure 
or  by  distillation,  whereby  the  fat  is'decomposed 
into  oleic  acid,  stearic  acid  and  glycerin.  The 
fatty  acids  are  allowed  to  solidify,  and  are  pressed 
between  hot  iron  plates,  whereby  the  Red  Oil 
(liquid  olein  or  elain)  is  separated  from  the  solid 
stearin.    The  latter  is  used  in  the  manufacture 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  23 


of  the  well-known  "  Adamantine  Candles,"  and 
the  red  oil  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and  in 
the  compounding  of  lubricating  oils  and  lubri- 
cating for  carding  wool.  By  the  saponification 
of  solid  fats  by  the  lime,  sulphuric  acid  or  steam 
process,  the  fatty  acids  are  set  free  from  their 
combination  with  glycerin,  and  are  allowed  to 
solidify,  and  are  pressed.  According  to  the  tem- 
perature, more  or  less  stearin  and  palmitic  acid 
go  into  the  product,  and  can  be  separated  by  dis- 
tillation. The  oil  is  often  semi-solid,  resembling 
tallow  grease ;  the  distilled  varieties  are  light 
brown  to  deep  red  ;  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is 
from  .899  to  .909,  or  24°  to  25°  Baume. 

SPERMACETI  AND  FISH  OILS. 

Spermaceti. 

The  cavities  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head  of 
the  sperm  whale  contain  an  oily  liquid,  which, 
after  the  de^th  of  the  animal,  concretes  into  a 
white,  spongy  mass,  consisting  of  spermaceti 
mixed  with  oil.  This  mass  is  removed  and 
allowed  to  separate  by  draining  or  pressure  in 
the  cold.  Common  whale  oils  and  the  oils  from 
other  cetaceous  animals  contain  also  small  quan- 


24     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

titles  of  spermaceti,  which  on  standing  they 
slowly  deposit. 

Spermaceti  is  a  concrete,  fatty  substance,  a 
white,  pearly,  semi-transparent  mass  of  neutral 
reaction  and  crystalline  foliaceous  texture,  friable 
and  somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch,  slightly 
inodorous  and  insipid  ;  it  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  the  fixed  oils  ;  its  specific  gravity 
is  0.945,  or  18°  Baume,  and  it  melts  at  about 
122°  F.  and  congeals  near  113°  F.  It  is  soluble 
in  ether,  chloroform,  disulphide  of  carbon,  and  in 
boiling  alcohol,  from  which  latter,  however,  it 
separates  in  crystalline  scales  on  standing.  It 
is  seldom  found  pure  in  commerce,  but  is  adul- 
terated with  fixed  oils.  Continelain  acid  is  the 
main  constituent  of  spermaceti,  and  is  different 
from  oleic  acid.  Spermaceti  also  contains  small 
quantities  of  stearic  acid,  myristic  and  lauro- 
stearic  acids.  Pure  spermaceti  does  not  produce 
fatty  spots  on  paper.  When  old  it  becomes 
darker  colored  and  rancid.  Different  from  stearin, 
spermaceti  is  not  affected  by  boiling  in  diluted 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  25 

Sperm  Oil 

xs  the  limpid  liquid  separated  from  the  sperma- 
ceti, the  spongy  mass  in  the  head  of  the  dead 
sperm  whale.  It  is  a  pale,  yellowish-colored 
liquid,  with  a  smell  of  fishy  nature,  and  will, 
when  exposed  to  the  cold,  deposit  but  little  solid 
matter.  It  is  not  liable  to  become  rancid,  has  no 
corrosive  action  on  metal,  and  no  tendency  to 
dry  and  become  gummy.  It  retains  its  viscosity 
under  influence  of  heat  better  than  any  other  oil. 
Sperm  oil  is  a  compound  of  fatty  acids  with 
alcohol  radicals,  the  acids  belonging  to  the  oleic 
acid  series.  Sulphuric  acid  gives  rise  to  an  in- 
crease of  heat  of  some  120°  F.,  and  produces  a 
yellowish-brown  mass,  which  distinguishes  sperm 
oil  from  other  lish  oils.  It  differs  from  other 
fish  oils  also  by  its  chemical  constitution  and 
its  low  specific  gravity,  0.884  at  60°  F.,  28°  to 
29°  by  Baume.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all  natural 
oils. 

Seal  Oil 

Is  obtained  from  the"  blubber  of  the  hooded  seal, 
the  barbed  seal  and  the  harp  seal  of  the  polar 
regions.  The  oil  is  extracted  from  the  blubber 
the  same  as  from  that  of  the  whale,  and  its  prop- 


26     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

erties  are  similar  to  the  whale  oil.  Its  color 
varies  from  a  light  straw  to  a  brown.  It  is  a 
strongly  odorous  oil,  of  a  specific  gravity  of  0.924 
to  0.929,  or  21°  Baume. 

Whale  and  Train  Oils. 

These  include  cod  liver  oil,  tanners  cod  oil 
from  different  fish,  menhaden  oil,  porpoise  oil, 
shark  oil  and  w^hale  oil. 

The  whale  and  train  oils  are  obtained  from 
the  blubber  of  various  species  of  whale,  the 
polar  whale,  the  humpback  whale,  the  com- 
mon whale.  The  blubber  varies  in  thickness 
from  8  to  20  inches  around  the  body  of  the 
whale,  and  after  being  cut  into  pieces,  is  boiled 
with  water  for  about  an  hour,  to  liberate  the  oil 
from  it.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  is  from 
0.920  to  0.931,  at  about  60°  F.,  or  20°  to  22° 
Baume. 

A  large  amount  of  oil  of  similar  character  as 
the  foregoing  fish  oils  is  obtained  from  endless 
varieties  of  the  smaller  salt  and  fresh  water  fishes, 
which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and 
lubricating  oils,  and  known  in  the  market  as 
"  Fish  Oils."  They  are  all  oxyhydrocarbons 
and  belong  to  the  class  of  "  fixed  oils." 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  27 


Wool  Fat. 

Wool  fat  is  obtained  by  the  washings  of  the 
wool  of  sheep.  It  is  the  fatty  substance  pro- 
duced by  the  absorption  of  large  amounts  of 
alkali  with  the  feeding  of  the  sheep,  thereby  pro- 
ducing a  secretive  matter  in  the  body  of  the 
sheep,  which  is  discharged  through  the  skin  by 
transpiration  and  is  deposited  as  in  the  wool 
suint,  a  quasi-saponified  compound  of  stearic, 
oleic,  and  some  palmitic  acids.  Weak  alkaline 
solutions  are  used  to  extract  this  suint  from  the 
wool,  from  which  in  turn  it  is  obtained  by  pje- 
cipitating  the  alkali  with  sulphuric  acid. 

The  wool  fat  when  first  obtained  is  a  cream- 
like mass,  which  requires  purification  and  free- 
ing from  moisture.  As  this  is  usually  accom- 
plished over  an  open  fire,  it  imparts  to  the 
product  a  dark  color. 

A  considerable  amount  of  wool  fat  is  also 
obtained  from  the  soapsuds  used  in  the  washing 
process  of  woolen  goods,  by  precipitating  the 
alkali  with  sulphuric  acid  to  liberate  the  fat. 

Degras. 

Degras  is  the  fatty  matter  obtained  in  the  pro- 


28     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

cess  of  chamoising  skins  in  the  manufacture  of 
chamois  leather.  The  fermentation  produced 
during  the  manipulation  of  the  skins  with  fat  or 
fish  oils,  train  oils,  causes  the  fat  or  oil  to  be 
split  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin.  About  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  fat  or  oil  employed  in  the  process 
is  recovered  in  the  form  of  a  greasy,  fatty  mass 
by  wringing  and  pressing  it  from  the  skins.  This 
constitutes  the  best  quality  of  degras. 

A  large  amount  of  fatty  mass  is  still  retained 
in  the  skins,  which  is  obtained  by  treating  them 
in  a  warm  solution  of  potassa,  whereby  the  fatty 
matter  is  partially  saponified,  and  is  separated 
from  the  resulting  white  bath  by  treatment  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

An  inferior,  factitious  degras  is  made  from  the 
elain  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  stearin 
for  candles  mixed  with  train  oils  and  other  fatty 
matter,  by  agitation  with  strong  decoctions  of  tan- 
bark  and  partial  saponification  with  alkalies  and 
subsequent  separation  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Degras  contains  80  per  cent  of  fatty  acids,  10 
per  cent  of  glutinous  and  extract-like  substances, 
2  per  cent  of  lime,  0.5  per  cent  of  potassa,  be- 
sides water. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS. 


29 


Castor  Oil. 

Castor-oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
castor-oil  plant,  Ricinus  Communis^  which  contain 
from  50  to  60  per  cent  oil  when  separated 
from  the  capsules  iri  which  they  are  enclosed. 
The  seeds  are  roasted  over  a  slow  fire  and 
boiled  with  water,  from  which  the  oil  is 
skimmed  off ;  later  the  seeds  are  subjected  to 
cold  or  hot  pressure,  a  better  quality  and  of 
lighter  color  being  obtained  by  cold  pressure 
than  when  pressed  warm  or  extracted  with  sol- 
vents. Castor-oil  is  the  most  viscid  of  all  the 
fixed  oils.  By  long  exposure  to  the  air  it  be- 
comes rancid  and  thick,  and  is  ultimately  trans- 
formed into  a  yellow  mass.  It  has  a  mild,  finally 
acrid  taste,  and  a  nauseous  odor,  and  it  is  of  a 
somewhat  semi-drying  character.  Exposed  to 
cold  a  solid,  white  crystalline  fat  (margaritine) 
separates  from  the  liquid  portion,  and  when 
cooled  to  0°  F.  it  congeals  to  a  yellow,  transparent 
mass,  which  does  not  liquefy  again  until  the  tem- 
perature rises  to  about  18°  F.  It  consists  of 
resin-stearic,  oleic  and  palmitic  acids.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.961,  or  15°  Baume.  It  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  in  four  volumes  of  rectified  spirit. 


30     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

It  mixes  with  fatty  oils,  but  will  not  mix  with 
mineral  oils. 

Olive  Oil. 

Olive  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fleshy  part  and 
the  kernels  of  the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree  of  south- 
ern Europe,  Palestine  and  California.  They 
furnish  from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  oil.  The 
olives  are  subjected  to  a  gentle  pressure,  whereby 
the  best  qualities  of  olive  oil  are  obtained.  The 
resulting  cake  is  treated  with  hot  water,  from 
which  an  inferior  oil  is  skimmed  off. 

Most  of  the  olive  oil  of  commerce  is  obtained 
by  allowing  the  olives  to  ferment  in  heaps,  and 
then  subjecting  them  to  heavy  pressure.  The  re- 
maining cake  or  mark  is  boiled  with  water,  and 
more  oil  is  obtained  of  a  darker  yellowish  or 
brownish-green  color.  Olive  oil  is  also  obtained 
by  extraction  from  the  crushed  and  dried  pulp 
with  hydrocarbon  solvents. 

Olive  oil  is  of  a  pale,  greenish-yellow  color, 
with  scarcely  any  smell  or  taste,  except  a  sweetish, 
nutty  flavor.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from  0.915  to 
0.920  at  60°  F.,  or  23°  Baume.  Olive  oil  mixes 
with  disulphideof  carbon,  benzol  and  chloroform 
in  all  proportions.    When  cooled  down  it  deposits 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  31 

stearin  and  solidifies  at  25°  F.  Its  boiling-point 
is  about  600^  F. 

Sunflower  Oil. 
Sunflower  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
sunflower,  especially  from  the  Black  Sea  regions. 
The  seeds  are  roasted  and  crushed,  and  the  pulp 
separated  from  the  wood-like  shells.  They  con- 
tain from  twenty-eight  to  thirty  per  cent  of  oil. 
The  oil  obtained  by  cold  pressure  is.  of  a  clear 
yellow  color,  nearly  odorless,  and  of  a  pleasant, 
mild  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is 
about  0.9260,  or  21^  Baurae.  It  thickens  in  the 
cold  and  solidifies  at  60°  F.  to  a  white,  yellowish 
mass.  It  is  a  very  slightly  drying  oil,  and  is 
mostly  composed  of  oleic,  stearic  and  palmitic 
acids. 

Sesame  or  Gingelly  Oil. 

Obtained  from  the  seeds  of  Sesamum  Indicum 
of  India  and  from  the  seeds  of  the  plant  culti- 
vated in  southern  Europe  and  the  Orient. 

The  seeds  furnish  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  oil 
of  a  bright  yellowish  color  and  agreeably  sweet 
taste.  It  is  much  used  as  a  substitute  and  adul- 
terant of  olive  oil,  and  is  very  similar  to  it  in  its 


32     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

characteristics.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is 
0.9235,  or  22°  Baumd. 

Cottonseed  Oil. 

Cottonseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
cotton  plant.  The  seeds  contain  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  per  cent,  of  oil,  a  thickish  liquid  of  a  straw- 
yellow  color,  with  nut-like  taste  and  smell.  It  is 
of  a  semi-drying  character,  consists  of  palmitin 
and  olein,  and  is  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty 
times  less  fluid  than  water.  Like  all  the  oils 
obtained  from  seeds,  the  latter  are  first  slightly 
roasted  and  separated  from  their  outside  shells  by 
mechanical  power,  and  the  oil  is  secured  by 
pressure  or  by  extraction  with  solvents. 

The  specific  gravity  of  cottonseed  oil  is  0.9306 
at  60°  F.,  or  20°  Baume.  It  separates  palmitin 
and  stearin  at  about  55°  F.,  and  solidifies  at 
about  40°  F. 

Rapeseed  or  Colza  Oil. 
Rape  or  colza  oil  is  produced  from  rapeseed, 
turnips,  and  other  species  of  brassia.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  the  seeds  by  cold  and  hot  pressure, 
and  they  yield  from  thirty  to  forty-five  per  cent, 
of  oil.    The  first  pressings  are  known  under  the 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  33 

name  of  colza  oil ;  the  second  pressings  are 
usually  sold  as  rapeseed  oil.  Colza  oil  has  a  pale 
yellow  color.  Rapeseed  oil  a  greenish-brown 
color.  They  are  limpid  oils,  with  a  peculiar  and 
characteristic  odor,  and  an  unpleasant  and  harsh 
taste.  Exposed  to  the  air,  the  oil  becomes  more 
viscid.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  ranges  from 
0.913  to  0.915,  or  23°  Baume.  It  is  a  semi-drying 
and  gumming  oil. 

Hempseed  Oil. 

Hempseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
Cannabis  Indica  plant.  The  seeds  when  crushed 
have  a  peculiar  odor,  and  yield  by  pressure  or 
extraction  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  per  cent  of 
an  oil  of  a  greenish-yellow  color.  The  oil  re- 
mains fluid  to  10°  F.,  and  thickens  w^hen  cooled 
down  to  5°  F.,  to  a  brownish-yellow  mass.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0.9276,  or  21°  Baume,  at  60° 
F.,  and  about  0.9240  at  70°  F. 

The  oil  consists  of  lineolic  acid,  oleic  acid  and 
palmitin  and  stearic  acids.  It  is  somewhat  less 
drying  than  linseed  oil. 

Palm  Oil  and  Cocoanut  Oil. 
Palm  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  the  oil 
3 


34     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

palm  and  the  cocoanut  palm  of  tropical  Africa, 
and  is  known  as  palm  fat,  palm  butter  or  palm 
oil.  The  oily  pulp  of  the  fruit  of  the  oil  palm, 
after  being  bruised  and  boiled  in  water,  yields  an 
oil  which,  when  fresh,  has  a  pleasant  odor  of 
violets,  and  assumes  in  the  cold  the  consistency 
of  butter  of  an  orange-yellow  to  a  dirty,  reddish 
color. 

From  the  dried  kernels  of  the  cocoanut  (copra) 
a  fixed  oil  is  extracted,  which  is  the  cocoanut  oil 
of  commerce.  The  kernels  are  ground,  and  the 
resulting  paste  is  boiled  with  water.  The  paste 
is  then  submitted  to  high  pressure,  whereby  a 
large  quantity  of  milky  juice  is  obtained.  This 
is  boiled,  and  when  the  oil  separates  from  the 
water  it  is  skimmed  off. 

Palm  oil  or  palm  butter  consists  chiefly  of 
stearin  and  palmitin^  both  of  which  have  a  com- 
paratively high  fusing  point  of  about  115°  to 
120°  F.,  and  are  preponderate  in  the  solid  fat, 
while  olein,  which  is  fluid  at  32°  F.,  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  the  oil. 

The  specific  gravity  is  0.968,  or  15°  Baum^. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  of  a  bright  white  color.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  .952,  or  17°  Baume. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  35 

Almond  Oil. 
Almond  oil  is  obtained  from  the  kernels  of 
bitter  and  sweet  almonds,  the  seeds  of  the  almond 
plant.  The  sweet  almonds  contain  more  fatty 
oil  than  the  bitter  almonds.  The  almonds  con- 
tain from  forty-five  to  fifty-five  per  cent  of  oil. 
For  pressing  the  bitter  and  sweet  almonds  are 
mixed.  The  oil  obtained  is  a  thick  liquid,  little 
affected  by  cold,  possesses  a  purely  oleaginous 
taste  and  solidifies  at  5°  F.  to  a  buttery  mass. 
Almond  oil  is  more  limpid  than  olive  oil  and  is 
thicker  than  poppyseed  oil.  It  consists  almost 
of  pure  olein.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  0.917 
or  23°  Baume. 

Poppyseed  Oil. 
Poppyseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the 
poppyflower  by  cold  and  by  warm  pressure.  It 
is  imported  from  India  and  the  plant  is  largely 
cultivated  in  France  and  Southern  Europe.  The 
seeds  yield  about  forty-seven  to  fifty-five  per  cent 
of  oil  of  a  pale-yellow  to  a  gold-yellow  color.  It 
is  a  clear,  limpid  oil,  with  an  agreeable  taste  and 
a  peculiar,  slight  odor,  somewhat  like  olive  oil. 
Its  specific  gravity  at  about  60°  F.  is  0.9250  or 
21°  Baume.    It  remains  liquid  until  cooled  down 


36      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

to  0°  F.  when  it  forms  a  thick,  whitish  mass. 
Once  solidified  by  cold,  it  remains  solid  to  about 
30°  F.,  when  it  begins  rapidly  to  become  liquid 
again.  Poppyseed  oil  is  almost  as  quick  drying 
as  linseed  oil,  and  is  composed  of  linolein,  oleic, 
stearic  and  palmitic  acids. 

Corn  Oil. 

Corn  oil  is  obtained  from  the  kernels  of  the 
corn  (maize)  plant,  and  is  almost  entirely  found 
in  the  shells  of  the  kernels. 

To  separate  the  shells  from  the  farinaceous  part 
of  the  kernels,  and  to  make  the  latter  better  avail- 
able for  the  mashing  process,  the  kernels  are  first 
subjected  to  the  malting  process.  They  are  then 
crushed  and  the  shells  separated  from  the  fari- 
naceous part  by  a  sifting  or  centrifugal  operation, 
whereby  the  parts  of  lighter  specific  gravity  are 
easily  separated  from  the  heavier  ones,  and 
thereby  nearly  eighty  per  cent  of  cornmeal, 
almost  entirely  free  from  oily  matter,  is  obtained. 
Otherwise  the  oily  matter  would  greatly  interfere 
with  the  fermentation  of  the  mash,  and  impart  an 
unpleasant  flavor  to  the  alcohol  manufactured 
therefrom. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS,  37 

The  hulls  thus  separated  are  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure,  and  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  pure  corn 
oil  obtained. 

Corn  oil  is  of  a  light  to  a  gold-yellow  color,  and 
has  a  peculiar,  agreeable  odor.  It  is  a  thickish 
liquid  of  0.9215,  or  22°  Baurn^  at  60°  F.  It  is 
composed  of  oleic,  stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  with 
a  small  percentage  of  a  volatile  oil,  and  solidifies 
at  about  50°  to  60°  F.  to  a  quite  solid,  white 
mass.  It  is  used  as  a  wool  oil,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  soaps,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lubri- 
cating oils. 

Peanut  Oil. 

Peanut  oil  is  obtained  from  the  kernels  of  the 
peanut.  They  yield  by  pressure  from  thirty  to 
forty  per  cent  of  an  oil  of  a  light  yellowish, 
almost  white,  color,  and  of  an  agreeable,  particu- 
larly nutty,  taste  and  odor.  When  obtained  by 
extraction  the  seeds  furnish  from  forty  to  fifty 
per  cent  of  oil.  The  specific  gravity  is  0.915,  or 
23°  Baum^,  at  60°  F.  The  older  and  last  pressed 
oils  have  at  60°  F.  a  specific  gravity  of  0.9202, 
or  22°  Baume.  The  oil  is  more  limpid  than  olive 
oil,  which  it  resembles  much.  It  is  a  slightly 
drying  oil.     It  contains  palmitin,  olein,  stearin 


38     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

and  archidic  acids  the  latter  being  peculiar  to 
this  oil. 

Mustardseed  Oil. 
Mustardseed  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of 
the  mustard  plant.  The  seeds  yield  by  pressure 
or  extraction  about  thirty  per  cent  of  oil  of  dark 
yellow-brownish  color,  of  a  mild  taste,  and  when 
obtained  by  pressure,  with  a  very  slight  odor  of 
mustard.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F,  is  0.917, 
or  23°  Baum^.  It  solidifies  at  about  18°  F.,  and 
is  composed  of  stearic,  palmitic  and  a  peculiar 
oleic  acid  called  mustardseed  acid. 

Nigerseed  Oil 
Is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  guizotia.  It  has  a 
pale  yellow  color,  little  odor  and  a  sweet  taste. 
Is  more  limpid  than  rapeseed  oil  and  of  a  semi- 
drying  character.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.924, 
or  22°  Baum6. 

Linseed  Oil. 

Linseed  oil  is  a  drying  fixed  oil  obtained  from 
flaxseed,  which  yield  about  thirty-four  per  cent 
of  oil.  The  seeds  are  roasted  before  being  pressed 
or  extracted,  and  furnish  a  light  colored  oil  of 
best  quality  under  cold  pressure.    When  pressed 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  39 

warm  or  obtained  by  extraction  with  solvents  it 
is  more  highly  colored  and  more  acid,  has  a 
brownish-yellow  color,  a  disagreeable  odor,  a  nau- 
seous taste,  and  a  neutral  reaction.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.932  to  0.936,  or  20°  Baume.  It  boils 
at  600°  F.,  does  not  congeal  at  0°  F.,  and  dries 
and  solidifies  on  exposure  to  the  air  and  acquires 
a  strong  odor  and  taste. 

The  drying  property  of  linseed  oil  resides  in  a 
constituent  called  '^linolein,"  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  olein  of  the  non-drying  oils.  Spread 
out  in  thin  layers  and  exposed  to  the  air  it  be- 
comes thicker  and  resinous,  and  increases  as 
much  as  twelve  per  cent  of  its  weight,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  linoxyn  by  atmospheric  oxida- 
tion. Boiled  with  litharge,  red  lead,  lead  acetate, 
manganese  dioxid  or  borate  and  other  chemicals, 
so-called  dryers,  it  absorbs  oxygen  still  more  rap- 
idly, and  increases  to  some  fourteen  per  cent  in 
weight.  Its  acrimony  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
small  proportion  of  an  acrid  oleoresin.  It  is 
much  adulterated  with  other  oils  when  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  printer's  ink. 


40     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Rosin,  Rosin  Oil  and  Turpentine. 

Rosin  is  obtained  by  distillation  of  the  crude 
turpentine  obtained  from  several  species  of  pine 
and  fir  trees,  especially  the  pine  trees  of  the 
States  of  North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

The  crude  turpentine  resin  is  distilled  with 
water,  and  yields  about  one-fourth  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  the  remainder  being  the  common 
rosin  of  commerce. 

Rosin  is  a  semi-transparent  solid  and  brittle 
product  of  smooth  and  shining  fracture  of  a 
yellowish-brown,  sometimes  almost  black,  color. 
It  has  a  somewhat  acrid  and  bitter  taste,  and  is 
insoluble  in,  and  rather  heavier  than,  water. 

Rosin  melts  at  about  275°  F.,  and  is  com- 
pletely liquid  at  306°  F.  It  is  soluble  in  the 
fixed  and  in  the  volatile  oils.  Rosin  distilled  by 
itself  yields  rosin  oil. 

The  first  distillate  below  674°  F.  is  the  lighter, 
at  a  specific  gravity  of  about  .987,  or  12°  Baume, 
at  60°  F.,  and  that  over  675°  F.  being  the  sec- 
ond and  heavier  oil  at  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
.981  to  .985,  or  12°  Baum^,  60°  F.  Rosin  oil 
readily  resinifies  by  absorption  of  oxygen,  and  is 
much  used  as  an  adulterant  of  linseed  oil  and  in 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.  41 

the  manufacture  of  printer's  inks.  Rosin  oil 
consists  of  sylvic  and  pinic  acids.  When  dis- 
tilled with  superheated  steam,  rosin  yields  ben- 
zol and  toluol. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  also  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion of  the  cones  of  the  pine  trees.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  0.903  at  60°  F.,  or  25°  Baumd. 

Pine  tar  is  obtained  by  charring  the  wood  of 
pine  and  other  coniferous  trees. 

Deodorized  rosin  oil  is  that  freed  from  the 
spirits  "  by  fractional  distillation. 

Rosin  or  pine  oil  (kidney  oil)  is  a  somewhat 
thickish  fluid  of  a  brownish-yellow  color,  aro- 
matic, turpentine-like  odor  and  taste.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  about  0.985  at  60°  F.,  or  12° 
Baume.  At  that  temperature  it  is  about  ten 
times  thicker  than  water,  becomes  whitish  turbid 
at  about  16°  below  Zero  F.,  and  solidifies  at 
about  20°  below  Zero  F.  It  is  a  slow-drying, 
gummy  oil. 

Glycerin. 

Glycerin,  also  called  the  sweet  spirit  of  the 
fatty  oils  and  fats,  is  a  trihydric  alcohol,  and  is 
not  found  readily  formed  in  the  fatty  matter. 
All  fats  and  fatty  oils  are  considered  glycerides, 


42     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

that  is,  compositions  of  fatty  acids  with  a  weak 
base  called  glyceryle.  By  the  process  of  hot 
saponification  the  stronger  alkaline  bases  unite 
with  the  fatty  acids  to  form  soapy  compounds, 
thereby  separating  and  setting  the  weaker  base, 
glycerin,"  free,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent 
of  it  is  thus  obtained.  Glycerin  is  also  obtained 
from  fatty  matter  by  the  action  of  superheated 
steam. 

Under  cold  treatment  of  fatty  matter  with  alka- 
line bases,  the  latter  unite  with  the  fatty  acids 
and  form  oleites,  stearates  and  palmitates  of  soda 
or  potassa,  but  no  glycerin. 

Glycerin  is  a  water-white,  viscid  liquid.  It 
has  no  odor,  but  a  very  sweet  taste.  It  boils  at 
550°  F.,  is  not  volatile  at  ordinary  temperature, 
but  will  vaporize  at  212°  F.  When  mixed  and 
boiled  with  water  it  readily  absorbs  water  from 
the  air,  and  will  mix  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions. It  is  miscible  with  alcohol  in  all  propor- 
tions, but  is  insoluble  in  petroleum  and  benzine. 
A  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid 
forms  with  it  "  nitro-glycerin,"  a  most  powerful 
explosive. 


V. 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING  OILS 
AND  FATS. 

The  clarifymg  and  bleaching  process  must 
necessarily  vary,  as  the  oils  may  be  more  or  less 
colored  or  mixed  with  impurities  than  others. 
The  animal  oils  and  fats  require  bleaching  or 
clarifying  only  when  obtained  from  impure 
material  or  offal.  The  vegetable  oils,  however, 
are  generally  more  or  less  colored  and  permeated 
with  vegetable  and  albuminous  matter.  In 
many  cases  it  will  suffice  to  blow  hot  dry  air  of 
a  temperature  of  from  120°  to  130°  F.  through 
the  oil  to  remove  the  undesirable  color  and  im- 
purities. Others  may  be  bleached  by  exposure 
to  the  sunlight  in  bright,  shallow  vessels,  or  by 
agitating  the  oil  mixed  with  animal  charcoal,  at 
a  temperature  of  about  120°  F.,  and  then  filter- 
ing it.  In  many  cases,  however,  one  or  the 
other  of  the  following  processes  may  be  required  : 

Oils  are  clarified  by  the  admixture  of  from 
(43)  . 


44     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

five  to  ten  per  cent  of  fuller's  earth,  stirring 
well  at  a  temperature  of  140°  to  150°  F.  The 
mixture  is  then  allowed  to  rest  and  settle.  The 
fuller's  earth  carries  down  with  it  all  impurities- 
in  suspension,  and  the  sediment  can  be  treated 
with  benzine  to  recover  any  oil  remaining  mixed 
with  the  fuller's  earth. 

Oils  are  also  refined  by  treatment  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  destroys  all  extraneous  vege- 
table matter.  The  oil  is  heated  to  about  110°  to 
115°  F.,  and  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  usually  previously  diluted  with  an 
equal  proportion  of  water,  is  added,  with  constant 
agitation  for  about  half  an  hour.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  rest  and  settle  for  about  twenty-four 
hours.  From  twelve  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water, 
heated  to  about  150°  F.,  to  every  twenty  gallons 
of  oil,  is  then  stirred  with  the  oil  and  the  oil 
allowed  to  rest  and  settle  for  a  few  days,  when  it 
is  drawn  off  and  washed  with  water  to  remove  all 
traces  of  acid. 

Oils  and  fats,  especially  cottonseed  oil,  are  also 
refined  wdtli  caustic  soda,  which,  like  acid,  de- 
stroys all  extraneous  vegetable,  mucilaginous 
and  resinous  matter,  and  all  acidity  in  the  oil. 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING.  45 

A  caustic  lye  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees 
Baume  is  used  for  cottonseed  oil,  from  eight  to 
twelve  degrees  for  most  other  fatty  oils,  and  a  lye 
from  five  to  six  degrees  strength  is  generally 
found  sufficient  for  cocoanut  and  like  oils,  and 
often  a  lye  of  from  one-half  to  one  per  cent 
strength  only  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

Oils  containing  much  of  free  fatty  acids  can 
be  effectively  treated  with  weak  solutions  of 
caustic  or  carbonate  of  soda,  or  with  milk  of  lime 
or  magnesia,  and  the  oil  filtered  from  the  lime 
and  magnesia  soap  thereby  formed. 

Strong  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  from  one 
to  two  per  cent  of  the  oil,  is  also  used.  It  de- 
stroys and  precipitates  all  albuminous  and  vege- 
table matter  suspended,  without  injury  to  the 
oil,  but  it  is  more  expensive  than  sulphuric  acid. 

It  is  advisable  to  avoid  treating  oils  to  be 
bleached  with  too  large  proportions  of  chemicals 
at  once,  as  repeating  the  operation  with  smaller 
proportions  will  generally  secure  better  results. 

Oils  can  be  bleached  and  thereby  also  deodor- 
ized with  chlorine,  a  powerful  bleaching  agent. 

The  oil  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
140°  to  150°  F.,  and  a  solution  of  chloride  of 


46     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

lime,  ''bleaching  powder,"  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  pound  to  a  thousand  pounds  of  oil,  is 
mixed  with  the  oil.  Hydrochloric  (muriatic) 
acid  is  then  added  in  about  twice  the  quantity  of 
the  bleaching  powder  used,  and  the  oil  is  thor- 
oughly agitated.  It  is  then  allowed  to  settle 
and  the  oil  or  fat  is  drawn  off.  Chloride  of 
potassa  or  peroxide  of  manganese,  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  can  also  be  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  chloride  of  lime. 

Oil  can  also  be  deodorized  by  shaking  1,000 
parts  of  it  with  120  parts  of  water,  holding  in 
solution  3  parts  of  permanganate  of  potassa,  keep- 
ing it  warm  for  some  hours,  and  then  filter.  For 
bleaching  lard  oil,  palm  oil,  and  similar  oils  and 
fats,  the  bichromate  of  potassa  process  is  much 
used.  The  oil  or  fat  is  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  130^  to  140°  F.,  and  a  concentrated 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa  in  the  propor- 
tion of  about  10  to  12  pounds  of  the  bichromate 
to  a  thousand  pounds  of  the  oil  or  fat  is  added 
and  thoroughly  stirred  into  the  oil.  Hydrochloric 
acid  in  the  proportion  of  from  two  to  three  per 
cent  of  the  oil  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  well 
stirred  for  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.    The  oil. 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING.  47 

which  at  once  assumes-  a  reddish-green  color, 
soon  changes  to  a  pale-green  one.  Boiling  water 
is  then  added,  and  the  agitation  continued  for  a 
few  minutes  more,  or  live  steam  is  blown  through 
the  oil  and  then  allowed  to  settle.  The  oil  is  then 
drawn  off  and  washed  with  water  to  remove  all 
traces  of  acid. 

Degras  is  bleached  and  deodorized  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  The  degras  is  melted  by  heat- 
ing with  live  steam  and  thoroughly  agitated  by 
paddling  or  blowing  with  air.  A  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potassa  in  water — one  pound  or 
more  of  bichromate  of  potassa  for  a  hundred 
pounds  of  degras — is  added,  and  after  agitating 
for  a  few  minutes  a  solution  of  two  pounds  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  previously  diluted  with  six  pounds 
of  water,  is  poured  in.  Next  three  pounds  of 
black  oxide  of  manganese  are  added  and  agitated 
for  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  The 
blower  is  then  turned  off  and  the  acid  and  water 
allowed  to  separate,  and  are  drawn  off  from 
underneath  the  fat.  The  grease  is  now  sprayed 
with  hot  water,  which  is  again  allowed  to  settle, 
and  is  drawn  off.  This  is  repeated  until  all  sour 
taste  is  removed.  When  cold,  stir  thoroughly 
and  allow  still  adhering  water  to  run  off. 


48      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS   AND  FATS. 

Tallow  and  other  fat  can  be  cleaned  and 
bleached  by  boiling  some  fifty  pounds  of  the  fat 
with  about  five  to  ten  pounds  of  alum  dissolved 
in  about  ten  gallons  of  water  for  about  an  hour, 
constantly  stirring  and  skimming.  Draw  off  the 
clear  fat  and  add  one  pound  of  sulphuric  acid 
diluted  with  three  pounds  of  water.  Boil  and 
add  some  eight  ounces  of  bichromate  of  potassa  ; 
continue  boiling,  and  if  necessary  add  a  little 
more  acid  ;  then  allow  to  settle,  draw  ofi*  and 
wash  with  boiling  water ;  finall}^  spray  with  a 
little  cold  water  to  accelerate  the  clearing  of  the 
fat. 

To  clean  and  bleach  and  deodorize  train  oil, 
boil  with  salt  water,  consisting  of  about  one- 
fourth  its  weight  of  chlornatrium  (salt),  and  stir 
briskly  for  about  half  an  hour ;  then  allow  to 
settle,  draw  off  the  oil  and  mix  with  a  decoction 
of  nutgalls.  After  briskly  stirring  for  about  fif- 
teen minutes  or  so,  add  about  four  ounces  aqua 
fortis  (nitric  acid)  to  every  hundred  pounds  of 
the  oil ;  stir  for  a  little  while  longer  and  allow  to 
settle  ;  draw  off  the  clear  oil  and  wash  with  water. 

Grease  is  bleached  by  melting  and  agitating 
with  about  three  per  cent 'of  sulphuric  acid  and 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING.  49 

two  per  cent  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of 
bisulphite  of  soda.  The  mixture  is  then  run  into 
a  narrow  cylindrical  vessel  and  violently  agitated 
with  dry  steam  for  half  an  hour,  and  is  then  run 
off  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  and  while  still 
fluid  the  fat  is  drawn  off  without  disturbing  the 
sediment.  It  is  again  agitated  with  steam  and 
about  20  per  cent  water  and  left  standing  to 
separate  and  harden. 
4 


VI. 


MINERAL  OILS. 

These  oils  are  obtained  by  distillation  from 
Scotch  shale,  a  black,  somewhat  flaky  mass 
of  homogeneous  structure,  with  an  irregular, 
glossy  surface.  It  is  usually  soft  enough  to  be 
cut,  and  when  ignited  burns  with  a  flame.  The 
better  qualities  yield  from  thirty  to  thirty-three 
per  cent  of  oil ;  the  poorer  grades  are  stony  and 
slate-like  and  produce  little  oil. 

When  submitted  to  distillation  in  large  vertical 
stills,  an  uncondensable  gas  and  water  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  ammonia  first  come  over ; 
then  a  crude  oil  of  a  thickish  dark  reddish- 
brown,  with  a  peculiar  odor  and  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  0.865  to  0.890,  or  32°  to  27° 
Baume,  is  obtained.  This  is  again  subjected  to 
distillation,  and  naphtha  and  light  colored  oil, 
which  gradually  becomes  darker,  is  obtained. 
Solid  paraffine  begins  to  show  itself,  followed  by 
(50) 


MINERAL  OILS. 


51 


a  thick,  brown  oil,  and  finally  coke  is  left  in  the 
still. 

The  oil  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  with 
a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  When  again  distilled 
the  oil  yields  a  light  spirit  known  as  green 
naphtha,  a  light  oil  known  as  "  second  run  oil," 
and  a  dark-color«d,  heavy  oil,  known  as  green 
oil,"  and  coke  is  left  as  residuum  in  the  still. 

The  naphtha  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  is  separated 
into  several  grades  of  illuminating  oil. 

The  "green  oil"  is  subjected  to  a  freezing 
temperature,  and  paraffin e  wax  is  obtained  from 
it  by  pressure.  The  solid  paraffine  wax  obtained 
is  about  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent.  The  remain- 
ing oil  is  known  as  paraffine  oil,"  and  was 
formerly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricating 
oils. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  light  oils  from  shale 
is  about  0.730  to  0.760  ;  that  of  the  heavier  oils 
is  about  .810  to  .820.  The  oil  from  the  paraffine 
pressings  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.872  or 
about  30^  Baume. 

Shale  m\  is  tiV^ated  with  a  small  proportion  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda,  about  one  per 


52     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

cent,  and  redistilled,  yielding  the  following 
grades  of  illuminating  oils  : 

No.  1,  best,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  0.800 
and  100°  F.  flash  point. 

No.  2,  first  quality,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.810  and  103°  F.,  flash  point. 

No.  3,  second  quality,  with  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.815  and  120°  F.,  flash  point. 

No.  4,  lighthouse  oil,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.820  and  160°  F.,  flash  point. 

No.  5,  marine  sperm  oil,  with  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.830  and  230°  F.,  flash  point. 

A  fuel  oil  is  left  of  about  0.840  specific  gravity. 

Steam  is  used  in  the  still  and  controls  the  dis- 
tillation ;  it  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  dis- 
tillate and  facilitates  the  passing  of  the  vapors 
from  the  still. 

The  mineral  oils  have  been  entirely  super- 
seded by  the  petroleum  oils  since  the  discovery 
and  utilization  of  the  latter. 

Tar  Oils. 

Tar  oils  are  obtained  from  tar,  being  the  result 
of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  and  bitu- 
minous coal. 


MINERAL  OILS. 


53 


Wood  is  distilled  in  iron  retorts  and  in  milers, 
to  obtain  thereby  the  resulting  charcoal.  The 
lighter  products  of  the  distillation  are  wood  alco- 
hol, naphtha  and  pyrolignic  acid,  the  latter  being 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  acetic  acid  and  other 
acetate  products.  The  tar  obtained  b}^  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  wood  is  re-distilled  and 
wood-tar  oil  is  obtained,  from  which  picric  acid 
is  made  by  treatment  of  the  oit  with  nitric  acidv 
The  oil  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather 
oils,  medicinal  soaps  and  ointments.  Creosote, 
another  product  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
wood-tar,  is  in  its  chemical  composition  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  carbolic  acid,  often  misnamed 
creosote,  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  tar  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  at 
the  gas-works. 

By  the  distillation  of  tar  from  the  gas-works  we 
obtain  benzol  and  coal-tar  oil.  This  benzol  is  a 
product  of  far  different  chemical  composition 
than  the  benzine  obtained  from  petroleum,  al- 
though often  confounded  with  it.  Benzol,  when 
treated  with  nitric  acid,  is  converted  into  nitro- 
benzol  (or  myrbane  oil),  which  has  a  strong  odor, 
like  oil  of  bitter  almonds.   This  oil  is  much  used 


54     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

in  perfumery  and  for  scenting  soaps  and  greases, 
for  lubricating,  ajid  for  deblooming  petroleum 
oils. 

When  acted  npon  wi^  nascent  hydrogen  this 
nitro-benzol  or  myrbane  oil  is  converted  into 
anilin  oil,  from  which  the  many  beautiful  anilin 
colors  are  made  by  the  use  of  powerful  oxidizing 
agents.  Coal-tar  oil,  too,  contains  large  amounts 
of  anilin  oil,  which  is  separated  from  it  by  agita- 
tion with  strong  mineral  acids,  which  combine 
with  the  anilin  oils. 

Coal-tar  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
coal-tar  paints  for  painting  roofs,  smokestacks 
and  iron  structures.  The  product  left  in  the  still 
is  the  well  known  asphaltum,  extensively  used  in 
roofing  and  for  paving  purposes. 


\ 


yii. 

PETROLEUM  OILS. 

Wherever  and  however  nature  carries  on  its 
mysterious  process  of  producing  the  various 
grades  of  petroleum  found  all  over  the  globe,  the 
lighter  and  the  heavier  grades,  the  brighter  and 
the  darker  colored  ones,  all  are  found  in  shallow 
places,  above  ground  or  near  the  suface,  or  deep 
down  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  those  found  low- 
est being  generally  of  lighter  consistency  than 
those  found  on  or  nearer  to  the  surface.  They 
are  all  hydrocarbon,  compounds  of  like  character- 
istics, differing  only  in  their  specific  gravity,  in 
their  color,  odor  or  in  cleanliness.  The  deposits 
found  above  ground  or  near  the  surface,  which  are 
almost  solid  or  are  liquids  of  heavy  specific  grav- 
ity, appear  to  be  the  result  of  evaporation  of  their 
lighter  constituents  or  of  a  gigantic  filtering  pro- 
cess, by  which  the  liquid  constituents  have  per- 
colated  to  a  lower  stratum,  leaving  the  heaviest 
(55) 


56     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

ones  retained  where  they  are  found  in  an  upper 
stratum  or  on  the  surface,  as  Ozokerite  wax. 

The  petroleum  oils  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Ve- 
nango, Clarion  and  Butler  counties,  in  War- 
ren and  McKean  counties,  vary  in  color  from 
light  amber-yellow  to  dark  black,  and  vary  in 
specific  gravity  from  30°  to  55°  Baume  ;  from 
thick  lubricating  oils  to  nearly  pure  benzine. 
Franklin  county  oils  are  celebrated  for  their  fine 
bright,  dark  ruby  color,  their  fine  lubricating 
quality  and  excellent  cold  test,  which  makes  them 
valuable  as  lubricants  on  refrigerator  machinery. 

The  Ohio  crude  oils,  containing  sulphur  and 
having  an  unpleasant  sulphurous  odor,  are  desul- 
phurized during  the  process  of  distillation  by  plac- 
ing a  desulphurizing  chamber  between  the  retort 
and  the  cooler.  This  chamber  is  separately  heated 
and  is  filled  with  iron  oxide^  copper  sulphate,  por- 
ous lime  coke,  or  other  desulphurizing  agents,  and 
hot  air  can  be  driven  through  the  oil.  When  a 
temp'erature  of  130°  F.  is  attained  in  the  desul- 
phurizing chamber,  the  still  is  fired  and  the  heat- 
ing of  the  chamber  is  increased  to  prevent  the 
passing  vapors  of  the  oil  from  condensing  in  the 
chamber  before  passing  through  the  cooler.  In- 


PETROLEUM  OILS. 


57 


troducing  nascent  hydrogen  into  the  still  or  the 
desulphurizing  chamber,  and  its  vapors  mingling 
with  those  of  the  distilling  oil,  improves  the  color 
and  odor  of  the  distillate  and  changes  the  pro- 
duct into  one  of  lighter  gravity  and  purer  odor. 

Aluminium  chloride  also  is  used  to  desulphurize 
Ohio  petroleum.  One  hundred  parts  of  the  oil 
are  heated  and  while  agitated,  0.8  part  of  alumin- 
ium chloride  is  gradually  added,  whereby  a  little 
muriatic  acid  and  much  sulphureted  hydrogen  are 
evolved.  When  no  more  gas  is  eliminated,  the 
oil  is  allowed  to  cool  and  is  drawn  off  from  over 
the  aluminium  residuum  and  washed  with  water 
and  soda  lye,  and  is  distilled  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  lime. 

In  order  to  enhance  the  value  of  the  various 
forms  of  petroleum  and  to  make  them  adapted 
and  available  for  their  manifold  uses  in  the 
market,  they  are  either  purified,  condensed  or 
distilled.  Some  require  only  straining  or  settling 
and  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  for  a  period  of 
time,  to  vaporize  all  traces  of  inflammable,  light 
hydrocarbon  compounds  and  to  settle  all  gritty 
matter  and  impurities,  to  make  them  serviceable 
for  lubricating  purposes.    Others  are  condensed 


58     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

and  the  lighter  vapors  driven  off  and  settling  of 
gritty  impurities  is  effected  by  application  of  steam 
heat.  The  greater  bulk,  however,  is  subjected  to 
distillation,  in  order  to  separate  the  different  grades 
of  hydrocarbon  compounds  from  each  other  and 
thus  obtain  various  useful  products. 

Distillation  of  Petroleum. 

When  crude  petroleum  is  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion  and  the  uncondensable  gases  and  moisture 
have  gone  over,  a  series  of  light  hydrocarbon 
compounds  known  as  '^benzine"  are  first  ob- 
tained, about  15  per  cent.  Then  a  number  of 
grades  of  burning  oil,  known  as  "  distillates," 
come  over  and  are  collected  separately.  They 
are  treated  and  bleached  and  freed  from  adhering 
scorched  impurities  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
solutions  of  caustic  soda.  From  50  to  60  per 
cent  of  these  oils  is  obtained  and  the  remaining 
residuum  oil  forms  the  basis  for  the  petroleum 
lubricating  oils. 

The  lighter  products  of  the  distillation,  the 
crude  benzine,  are  subjected  to  redistillation  with 
steam  heat  and  are  separated  to  their  respective 
degrees  of  specific  gravity  and  characteristics  re- 


PETROLEUM  OILS.  59 

quired  to  the  manifold  demands  for  their  use. 
They  are  purified,  deodorized  and  bleached  by 
treatment  with  chemicals  and  are  sold  as  naptha, 
gaso34ne,  benzine,  and  under  many  fancy  names. 

The  "  distillates,"  which  are  next  obtained,  are 
likewise  purified  and  bleached  by  treatment  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  solution  of  caustic  soda  and 
by  exposure  in  bright  and  shallow  tanks  to  the 
bleaching  influence  of  sunlight.  Numerous 
grades  of  distillates  are  produced  by  being  care- 
fully separated  from  each  other  during  distilla- 
tion. 

The  proceeds  of  distillation  at  specific  gravities 
are  the  benzine  series,  from  the  highest  gravity 
(the  first  distillate  obtained)  down  to  about  56° 
to  58°,  standard  white  or  export  oil  of  110°  F.  flash 
or  70°  Abel  test,  from  56°  to  54°  and  then  from 
42°  to  39°.  Water  white  oil,  120°  flash  or  150° 
fire  test,  the  legal  test  of  Ohio  and  now  the  gener- 
ally accepted  test  of  most  states,  from  54°  to  46°, 
or  until  the  distillate  begins  to  show  color.  Prime 
white  oil,  150°  fire  test,  from  46°  to  42°,  and 
headlight  oil,  175°  fire  test,  from  46°  to  39°. 

In  case  110°  standard  white  and  175°  head- 
light oils  are  not  desired,  there  will  be  but  two 


60      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

separations  between  56°  and  39°,  viz.,  150° 
water-white  oil  and  150°  prime  white  oil,  the 
necessary  fire  test  being  obtained  by  driving 
off  the  lighter  vapors  by  redistillation  in  a  steam 
still,  or  by  steaming  and  spraying  in  an  agitator 
or  open  tank,  but  preferably  in  a  steam  still,  in 
which  case  what  is  known  as  a  Straight  Run  " 
(distillate  from  58°  to  46°)  water-white  oil,  the 
requirement  of  almost  any  State  law  as  to  flash 
or  fire  test,  can  be  made.  These  gravity  separa- 
tions are  not  absolute,  but  flexible  within  a  few 
degrees,  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  crude 
oil  used  and  the  grade  of  oil  desired. 

The  continued  distillations  from  39°  down  to 
29°  constitute  the  neutral  distillates,  and  are 
divided  by  separation  into  what  is  known  as  300° 
F.  or  mineral  seal  oil  and  34°  to  36°  neutrals,  or  by 
redistillation  into  a  small  percentage  of  prime 
white  or  headlight,  300°  or  mineral  seal,  34°  to 
36°  neutral,  and  a  residual  oil  known  as  "  Spin- 
dle Oil,"  of  30°  to  32°  Baume,  possessing  con- 
siderable viscosity. 

If  the  distillation  from  the  crude  still  is  carried 
from  29°  to  20°  and  the  product  afterwards  re- 
distilled, the  residual  of  the  second  distillation 


PETROLEUM  OILS. 


61 


will  be  the  commercial  red  oils  of  high  viscosity 
and  gravity  of  from  30°  to  23°. 

The  residual  oil  in  the  crude  still  at  24°  to  19° 
is  usually  pumped  hot  into  a  tar-still  and  the 
distillation  continued  down  to  coke,  producing 
the  paraffine  distillates  hereafter  to  be  described. 

The  carbonaceous  residuum  or  coke  left  in  the 
still  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  carbons  for 
electric  lighting. 

The  neutral  oils  are  purified  and  bleached  by 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  solution  of 
caustic  soda.  They  are  deodorized  by  air-blast 
and  their  fluorescence  skillfully  removed  with 
chemicals.  They  are  largely  used  for  adulterat- 
ing the  more  costly  animal  and  vegetable  "  fatty 
oils." 

The  crude  paraffine  oils  hold  crystalline  paraf- 
fine wax  in  suspension,  produced  by  the  disin- 
tegration of  hydrocarbon  compounds  during  the 
process  of  distillation.  It  is  extracted  from  the 
oil  by  freezing  and  pressure,  and  is  purified  by 
treatment  with  sulpuric  acid  and  caustic  soda 
while  being  kept  in  a  liquid  state  by  heat.  It  is 
bleached  with  benzine  and  then  cast  into  solid 
blocks. 


62     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Paraffine  wax  is  largely  used  in  waterproofing 
fabrics,  for  insulating  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
candles  and  matches,  and  numerous  other  manu- 
factures. The  paraffine  oil  left  after  separation 
from  the  wax  is  treated  with  acid  and  solution  of 
caustic  soda  and  is  filtered  through  animal  char- 
coal. It  is  used  for  lubricating  and  is  known  as 
''Golden  Machine  Oil."  The  paraffine  oils  of 
varied  degrees  of  specific  gravity  form  the  basis  for 
many  engine  lubricating  oils  and  are  compounded 
with  fatty  oils  in  endless  proportions. 

In  order  to  make  the  residuum  oil  left  in  the 
still,  after  distilling  off  the  burning  oils,  directly 
useful  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  engine  cylin- 
ders, the  oil  is  put  into  tall  vessels,  surrounded 
by  steam,  and  the  impurities,  produced  by  the 
scorching  influence  on  the  oil  against  the  heated 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  still  during  the  process 
of  distillation,  are  allowed  to  settle.  This  kind 
of  residual  is  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Steam  Re- 
fined Cylinder  Oil." 

Crude  oil  of  proper  character  will  also  produce 
a  good  cylinder  oil  by  introducing  steam  during 
distillation  in  the  bottom  of  the  still,  sufficient  to 
prevent  scorching  or  carbonizing  by  running 


PETROLEUM  OILS. 


63 


down  to  23°  to  27°  in  the  still.  The  lower  the 
gravity  the  higher  the  fire  test.  If  run  slowly 
and  carefully  and  strained  while  hot,  a  second 
steaming  and  settling  will  not  be  necessary  to 
produce  a  good  steam  refined  cylinder  oil. 

Crude  oil  not  suited  for  cylinder  oil  produces  a 
black  lubricating  oil  or  ''West  Virginia  oil,"  as 
it  is  sometimes  erroneously  called. 

Residuum  oil  is  also  filtered,  while  hot,  through 
animal  charcoal,  to  give  it  a  brighter  color  and 
deprive  it  of  all  charred  impurities  held  in  sus- 
pension. As  such  it  is  known  in  the  market  as 
^'filtered  cylinder  stock."  Repeated  filtration 
produces  the  products  well  known  under  the 
names  of  "  vaseline,"  "  cosmoline,"  "  petrolatum  " 
and  many  other  fancy  names.  They  are  all  com- 
pounds of  paraffine  wax  in  an  amorphous  state, 
to  which  the  original  crystalline  wax  of  the  resi- 
duum oil  has  been  converted  by  chemical  action 
during  the  repeated  filtering  through  animal  char- 
coal. 

Petroleum  Oils  for  Lubricating. 
Petroleum  oils  for  lubricating  should  have  a 
flash  point  above  300°  F.    On  general  principles, 
the  most  fluid  oil  that  will  stay  in  place  should 


64      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

be  used ;  the  oil  that  possesses  the  greatest  ad- 
hesion and  the  least  cohesion  is  the  best.  These 
conditions  are  possessed  first  by  the  petroleum  oils 
and  second  by  sperm  oil,  neatsfoot  oil,  and  lard 
oil.  For  light  pressure  and  high  speed  machinery, 
mineral  oils  of  a  specific  gravity  of  30°  Baume 
and  350°  F.  flash  point,  mixed  with  sperm  oil, 
olive  oil  or  rape  oil,  should  be  used.  For  ordin- 
ary machinery,  oil  of  a  specific  gravity  of  25°  to 
29°  Baume,  with  a  flash  point  of  350°  to  400°  F., 
mixed  with  lard  oil,  whale  oil,  neatsfoot,  tallow, 
or  with  vegetable  oils,  should  be  used.  For  use 
on  spindles  in  cotton  mills,  oils  of  350°  F.  are 
quite  safe,  and  the  flash  for  cylinder  oil  should 
not  be  below  500°  F. 

For  gas  engines  and  gasoHne  engines,  a  pure 
hydrocarbon  oil,  of  high  vaporizing  point,  about 
260°  F.,  a  flash  point  of  430°  F.  and  a  fire  test 
of  550°  F.,  should  be  considered  best. 

A  compound  of  lard  oil  and  petroleum  burning 
oil,  used  in  lanterns  as  signal  oil,  should  not  con- 
tain less  than  40  per  cent  of  prime  lard  oil  and 
have  a  flashing  point  not  below  200°  F.,  and  a 
burning  point  or  fire  test  not  above  300°  F. 


PETROLEUM  OILS. 


65 


Deb  looming  Petroleum  Oils. 

For  adulterating  animal  or  vegetable  fatty  oils 
with  petroleum,  neutral  oils  are  debloomed,  which 
means  freeing  them  from  their  fluorescent  appear- 
ance, by  refining  them  with  chromic  acid,  or 
more  readily  as  follows : 

The  oil  is  heated  to  about  140°  to  160°  F.,  and 
nitro-naphthaline,  binitro-benzol  or  binitro-toluol, 
known  as  myrbane  oil,  is  added  and  well  stirred 
into  the  oil  in  proportions  of  about  three  ounces 
to  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  gallons  of  oil  with  a 
slight  bloom,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  ounces 
for  oil  with  heavier  bloom.  There  is  thereby  no 
material  influence  exerted  on  the  oil  and  no  ten- 
dency of  the  bloom  to  reappear  remains. 

For  test,  boil  one  part  of  the  oil  with  three 
parts  of  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  potassium 
hydrate  in  alcohol  for  one  or  two  minutes.  If 
either  of  the  nitro-compounds  is  present,  a  blood 
or  vio>et-red  coloration  will  be  produced.  A  pure 
oil  is  changed  by  this  test  to  a  yellow  color  only. 

Deodorizing  Petrol  Oil. 
Kerosene  oil  and  benzine  can  be  deodorized 
from  their  bad  odor  as  follows : 
5 


66     FRICTION,  I.UBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

The  kerosene  oil  is  mixed  with  chloride  of  zinc 
and  then  poured  into  a  vessel  which  contains 
burnt  lime,  and  after  stirring  well,  is  left  standing 
for  some  time,  to  settle,  when  the  pure  kerosene 
is  drawn  off. 

The  benzine  is  mixed  and  well  stirred  with  a 
mixture  composed  of  alkali  manganese  oxide, 
some  water  and  sulphuric  acid.  After  some 
twenty-four  hours'  standing  the  benzine  is  drawn 
off  again,  treated  with  permanganate  and  soda  in 
water. 

Benzine  and  kerosene  oil  can  also  be  deodor- 
ized and  bleached,  and  their  specific  gravities  im- 
proved, by  a  treatment  with  nascent  or  fixed 
hydrogen  gas.  One  per  cent  of  amyl  acetate  will 
also  deodorize  petroleum  oils, 


VIII. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

The  manufacture  or  compounding  of  lubri- 
cants is  manifold.  For  cylinder  oils,  mineral  or 
petroleum  oils  of  a  specific  gravity  of  about  27° 
Baum^  and  a  fire  test  of  about  650°  F.,  either 
alone  or  with  additions  of  from  one  to  ten  or 
fifteen  per  cent  of  animal  or  vegetable  oils,  are 
used.  The  fatty  oils  that  such  lubricants  are 
generally  compounded  with  are  lard  oil,  neatsfoot 
oil,  tallow  oil,  linseed  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  rapeseed 
oil,  or  degras.  For  heavy  pressure  and  low-speed 
ma^chinery,  lard,  tallow  and  other  compounded 
greases,  either  by  themselves  or  mixed  with 
graphite  (plumbago),  mica  and  soapstone  (talc), 
are  used. 

On  account  of  their  great  propensity  for  ab- 
sorbing oxygen,  the  fatty  oils  are  now  seldom 
used  alone  for  lubricating,  but  are  more  or  less 
compounded  with  petroleum  oils.    The  viscosity 
(67) 


68      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

or  lubricating  power  of  spindle  oils  and  red  oils 
depends  on  the  amount  of  amorphous  paraffine 
wax  they  hold  in  suspension,  which,  however, 
loses  much  of  its  consistency  under  the  influence 
of  frictional  heat. 

To  give  petroleum  oils  a  viscous  consistency 
they  are  often  compounded  with  proportions  of 
oleate  of  lead  (lead  plaster)  dissolved  in  the  oil 
while  heated  to  from  140°  to  160°  F.  One  to 
two  per  cent  of  unvulcanized  caoutchouc  or  rub- 
ber are  also  often  dissolved  in  the  oil,  heated  and 
stirred  together  until  thoroughly  diffused.  Soap 
in  various  proportions  and  thoroughly  dried  is 
also  compounded  in. petroleum  lubricating  oils 
by  heating  and  stirring  until  fully  dissolved  and 
diffused  and  the  oil  has  become  perfectly  bright 
and  clear.  Four  ounces  of  soap  to  a  gallon  of 
oil  will  cause  it  to  gelatinize  at  60°  F.,  and  one 
pound  of  soap  to  the  gallon  will  convert  it  into 
grease. 

For  cylinder  oil,  steam  refined  residuum  stock 
or  medium  filtered  cylinder  stock  is  heated  to 
about  130°  to  140°  F.  and  stirred  or  blown  until 
free  from  moisture  and  scum,  and  from  one  to 
five  gallons,  or  even  more,  of  tallow  oil,  lard  oil^ 


MANUFACTUKE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS.  69 

neatsfoot  oil,  rapeseed  oil,  olive  oil,  or  fish  oil 
added  to  each  barrel  of  stock.  To  give  common 
filtered  stock  a  better  cold  test  for  winter  use, 
paraffine  oil  or  red  oil,  of  28^  to  30°  Baum^  is 
added  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  gallons, 
more  or  less,  to  a  barrel  of  stock. 

Degras  (woolfat)  is  also  used  in  the  compound- 
ing of  this  kind  of  cylinder  oils,  in  the  proportion 
of  from  one  to  three  gallons  to  a  barrel  of  filtered 
stock.  The  degras  should  be  previously  heated 
and  all  arising  scum  removed  before  mixing  with 
the  cylinder  stock. 

Castorbean  oil,  well  heated  together  with  yellow 
lard  grease,  and  combined  with  well  heated  cylin- 
der stock,  is  compounded  for  cylinder  lubricating 
oils. 

For  engine  and  machinery  oil,  paraffine, 
spindle  or  red  oils  of  a  gravity  from  28°  to  33° 
Baume,  are  compounded  and  well  stirred  together 
with  a  few  gallons  of  filtered  stock  tso  improve  the 
viscosity  of  the  lighter  petroleum  oils. 

The  compounding  of  petroleum  with  fatty  oils, 
for  engine  and  machinery  lubricating  purposes, 
should  always  be  conducted  at  a  temperature  of 
about  140°  to  160°  F.  and  with  a  thorough  mix- 


70     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

ing,  else  the  oils,  being  only  a  mechanical,  and 
and  not  a  chemical,  mixture,  when  resting  will 
separrate  from  each  other,  on  account  of  their  dif- 
ferences in  specific  gravity.  This  explains  the 
fact  that  such  compounded  oil,  when  imperfectly 
mixed,  when  kept  in  tanks  and  gradually  drawn 
off  by  the  faucet  placed  near  the  bottom,  appear 
at  first  to  be  of  a  satisfactory  consistency,  but 
drawing  towards  the  end  are  complained  of  as 
being  too  thin  and  deficient  in  body,  the  oil  in 
the  course  of  time  having  separated  and  the 
lighter  oil  having  gradually  risen  to  the  top. 

Crude  rosin  oils  are  refined  by  distillation  and 
the  resulting  products  are  treated  and  bleached 
witii  chemicals  and  skillfully  deodorized  so  that 
not  the  slightest  odor  would  betray  their  origin, 
unless  partially  decomposed  under  application  of 
heat.  As  the  rosin  oils  are  of  a  very  low  gravity, 
they  are  used  in  the  compounding  of  lubricating 
oils  to  give  the  petroleum  oils  a  body  and  to  pass 
the  lighter  oils  off  for  lubricating  oils  of  lower 
gravity  and  greater  viscosity.  Lard  oils  and 
other  fatty  oils  are  often  adulterated  with  petro- 
leum oils,  and  to  reduce  the  lighter  gravity  of  the 
latter,  have  been  compounded  with  such  deodor- 


MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS.  71 


ized  rosin  oils,  to  equalize  the  specific  gravity  of 
such  compounded  oils  to  that  of  genuine  lard  oil. 

Lubricating  oils  have  also  been  made  by  avari- 
cious and  ignorant  compounders  by  mixing  heavy 
rosin  oils  with  lighter  petroleum  oils  or  even 
simply  dissolving  common  rosin  in  them,  in  the 
proportion  of  from  two  to  four  pounds  to  a  gallon. 
The  viscosity  or  body  of  such  compounded  oils 
appears  deceptively  superior  to  some  of  the  best 
lubricating  oils,  but  like  all  rosin  oils  and  rosin 
and  rosin  oil  mixtures,  which  form  resinous  de- 
posits under  the  influence  of  frictional  heat  or  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  they  are  entirely  unfit  for 
lubricating  purposes,  they  gumming  up  the 
machinery  and  retarding  the  motion  by  their 
sticking  propensities. 

Thickened  Oils. 
Rapeseed  oil,  cottonseed  oil  and  other  fatty  oils 
can  be  thickened  and  their  viscosity  increased  by 
heating  them  to  from  160°  to  170^  F.  and  forc- 
ing or  blowing  air  heated  to  a  like  temperature 
through  the  oil  for  several  hours.  The  propen- 
sity of  the  fatty  oils  for  absorbing  oxygen  allows 
of  turning  them  by  this  process  into  heavy,  vis- 


72     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 


cous  oils,  which  are  largely  used  to  impart  greater 
viscosity  to  lighter  petroleum  oils  used  for  lubri- 
cating purposes. 

Blown  rapeseed  oil  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.967  at  60^  F.,  or  15°  Baume. 

Blown  cottonseed  oil  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.974  at  60°  F.,  or  14°  Baum^. 


IX. 


VALVE-OLEUM  "  OILS. 

The  fatty  oils  and  fats  are  composed  of  either 
oleic,  margaric  or  palmitic  and  stearic  acids, 
which,  when  treated  with  caustic  soda,  form  com- 
pounds soluble  in  water.  Precipitated  with  min- 
eral salts,  such  as  sulphate  of  alumina,  magnesia, 
lime,  or  acetate  of  lead,  etc.,  they  form  insoluble 
compounds,  which  are  only  soluble  in  other  fatty 
oils  or  petroleum  oils.  In  this  state  the  oils  pos- 
sess uncommon  lubricating  power,  without-  the 
injurious  effect  the  otherwise  free  fatty  acids 
would  exert  on  the  metal  of  which  the  machinery 
requiring  lubrication  is  made.  They  form  the 
foundation  of  the  manufacture  of  the  "  Valve- 
Oleum  "  Oils  Valve-Oleum "  is  their  trade- 
mark), patented  by  the  author,  and  they  com- 
bine the  excellent  lubricating  qualities  of  fatty 
oils  with  the  great  cleanliness  and  diffusing  qual- 
ities of  mineral  oils.  To  manufacture  the  valve- 
(73) 


74     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

oleum  oils,  lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  neatsfoot  oil 
or  lard-grease,  or  even  fish  oils,  can  be  used  to 
make  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  Gelatine,  the  mineral, 
castor  and  the  so-called  honeydrop  engine  oils. 
Neatsfoot  oil  is  used  to  make  the  finest  grades  of 
"Valve-Oleum"  cylinder  oil,  and  for  a  heavier 
and  coarser  grade  cake-tallow  can  be  used.  Extra 
strained  white  lard  oil  or  extra  prime  lard-grease 
is  used  to  make  the  so-called  "Valve-Oleum" 
white  castor  oil  and  the  oil  known  as  "  Commer- 
cial Castor  Oil,"  a  cheaper  substitute  for  the 
more  costly  castor  bean  oil.  The  oleate,  marga- 
rate  or  palmitate,  or  stearate  of  alumina,  is  the 
combination  preferably  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  Oils,  although  oleate  of 
lime  and  oleate  of  lead  can  be  used  in  like  man- 
ner, the  latter  especially  in  the  manufacture  of 
paints,  paint  oils  and  factitious  linseed  oils. 

Oleate  of  alumina  is  made  in  the  following 
manner : 

A  solution  of  caustic  soda  is  first  prepared  by 
dissolving  caustic  soda  (some  160  pounds  for  a 
batch  of  1,200  pounds  of  oil  or  fat)  in  about  90 
gallons  of  water,  thus  making  about  110  gallons 
of  a  caustic  soda  lye  of  from  22°  to  23°  Baume. 


VALVE-OLEUM  "  OILS. 


75 


If  the  lye  is  freshly  made,  it  will  be  heated  by  the 
chemical  action  which  takes  place  between  the 
dry  soda  and  the  water.  In  that  case,  if  fat  or 
tallow  is  to  be  used,  it  is  only  melted  with 
heat  so  that  the  combined  temperature  of  the  fat 
with  that  of  the  hot  lye  will  not  exceed  250°  F. 
If  the  lye  has  been  previously  prepared  and  has 
become  cold,  the  temperature  of  the  oil  or  fat 
should  be  increased  to  about  200°  F. 

While  constantly  stirring,  the  lye  is  slowly  run 
into  the  oil  or  fat  and  the  stirring  continued  until 
the  mixture  has  become  a  soapy,  mushy  com- 
pound and  has  assumed  a  perfectly  neutral  and 
soapy  taste  to  the  tongue.  This  will  be  accom- 
plished in  from  one  to  two  hours,  depending 
much  on  the  quality  of  the  fat  or  oil,  being  fresh 
or  old.  The  resulting  product  is-  the  oleate  of 
soda,  which  is  next  dissolved  with  boiling  water. 
Previously  from  550  to  600  pounds  of  alum  (sul- 
phate of  alumina)  are  dissolved  in  about  6  barrels 
of  boiling  water,  and  when  all  is  dissolved  and  the 
solution  is  perfectly  clear,  it  is,  while  constantly 
stirring,  gradually  run  into  the  solution  of  oleate 
of  soda,  enough  of  it  until  the  oleate  of  alumina 
thus  formed  floats  as  a  pasty  compound  on  a. 


76      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

clear,  watery  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  the  sul- 
phuric acid  of  the  sulphate  of  alumina  having 
united  with  the  soda  of  the  oleate  of  soda,  while 
the  oleic  acid  of  the  oleate  of  soda  has  united  with 
the  alumina  and  formed  "oleate  of  alumina." 
The  whole  mass  is  now  started  boiling  and  if  any 
lathery  foam  still  appears  on  the  surface,  some 
more  alum  solution  is  added,  until  all  the  foam 
has  disappeared  and  the  liquor  remains  perfectlj^ 
clear.  Next  one  barrel  of  25°  paraffine  oil  is 
added,  and  the  whole  briskly  boiled  and  stirred 
for  about  one  hour.  Then  the  steam  is  turned 
off  and  stirring  is  stopped  and  the  pasty  mass 
allowed  to  subside  over  the  clear,  watery  liquid. 
This  is  then  drawn  off  and  replaced  with  fresh 
boiling  water,  and  the  boiling  and  stirring  are 
resumed  and  several  times  repeated,  until  all 
taste  of  alum  or  sulphate  of  soda  has  been  re- 
moved. The  last  wash-water  is  then  drawn  off, 
and  heating  and  slow  stirring  continued  for  a 
short  time,  and  then  discontinued,  to  allow  of  some 
more  water,  freely  separating,  to  be  drawn  off 
from  underneath  the  pasty  mass.  Heating  and 
stirring  are  now  again  resumed,  keeping  the  heat 
at  a  high  and  uniform  temperature,  until  the 


"  VALVE-OLEUM  "  OILS. 


77 


pasty  mass  becomes  turned  from  its  white  to  a 
brownish  color  and  has  become  perfectly  clear 
and  transparent  and  is  pulling  heavily,  like 
molasses  candy. 

When  a  small  sample  of  the  mass,  thrown  onto 
a  glass  plate,  shows  perfectly  clear  and  transpar- 
ent and  free  from  all  moisture,  paraffine  oil, 
which  has  been  previously  heated  to  about  140^ 
to  160°  F.  and  kept  at  that  temperature  until  all 
hygroscopic  moisture  and  adhering  light  hydro- 
carbon vapors  hav6  been  expelled,  is  then  added 
by  slowly  running  it  into  the  batch  while  con- 
stantly stirring  and  keeping  the  temperature  at 
from  150°  to  160°  F.  for  from  two  to  three  hours 
or  more. 

To  make  the  "  Valve-Oleum  Gelatine  "  not  too 
heavy  and  so  as  to  allow  it  to  be  drawn  off  into 
barrels,  but  still  warm  enough  to  prevent  it  from 
chilling,  from  3|  to  4  barrels  of  the  paraffine  oil 
to  every  barrel  of  fat  or  oil  used  in  the  making 
of  the  aluminate,  are  required. 

To  make  a  heavy  and  stringy  mineral  castor 
for  use  on  heavy  bearings  and  machinery,  some 
40  to  45  barrels  of  paraffine  oil  to  a  1,200-pound 
(oi*  3  barrels)  batch  of  fat  or  fatty  oil,  are  required, 
and  more  if  a  lighter  grade  is  desired. 


78      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Valve-Oleum "  engine,  so-called  Honey- 
drop  "  oil,  is  made  in  precisely  the  same  manner, 
but  in  order  to  cut  the  stringy  nature  of  the 
heavy  castor  oil  to  a  honey-drop  one,  better 
adapted  for  oiling  engines  and  lighter  machinery, 
from  30  to  40  gallons  of  degras  to  a  1,200-pound 
batch  are  added  together  with  the  barrel  of  par- 
affine  oil  when  boiling  the  compound,  after  the 
precipitation  with  alum  and  before  the  repeated 
washings. 

For  Valve-Oleum  "  cylinder  oil,  a  barrel  of 
cylinder  stock  and  from  40  to  50  gallons  of  degras 
are  used  at  the  boiling  with  the  compound,  if 
the  cylinder  stock  to  be  used  is  of  a  reasonable 
cold  test,  otherwise  a  barrel  of  25°  paraffine  oil  is 
used.  The  batch  is  then  finished  up  with  from 
40  to  45  barrels  of  filtered  cylinder  stock,  which 
has  also  to  be  previously  heated  until  all  hygro- 
scopic moisture  and  arising  scum  have  been  re- 
moved, as  otherwise  the  combination  will  not 
remain  uniform.  Imitations  of  the  ^'  Valve- 
Oleum  "  oils,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  giving  to 
light  distillates  or  poor  paraffine  oils  some  lubri- 
cating qualities,  such  as  the  so-called  "  Eldorado  " 
oil  and  others,  will  easily  thin  out,  separate  and 


"  VALVE-OLEUM  "  OILS. 


79 


lose  their  consistency,  as  they  are  only  crudely 
mixed  with  distillates  or  light  paraffine  oils  not 
previously  freed  from  their  adhering  hygroscopic 
moisture  and  light  hydrocabon  vapors  in  suspen- 
sion. 

White  ^'  Valve-Oleum  "  castor  oil  is  made  pre- 
cisely like  the  Valve-Oleum  "  engine  oils,  but 
extra  white  winter  strained  lard  oil  or  prime 
white  lard  grease  is  used  in  the  making  of  the 
oleate  alumina  compound,  and  300°  white  mine- 
ral oil  is  used  in  place  of  the  paraffine  oil. 

Valve-Oleum "  castoroleum,  also  known  as 
"  Commercial  Castor  Oil,"  a  cheap  substitute  for 
castorbean  oil,  is  made  by  using  white  tallow  or 
prime  white  lard  grease  for  making  the  alumina 
compound,  adding  some  300°  F.  white  mineral 
oil,  to  be  boiled  with  the  alumina  bath,  and, 
after  washing  and  roasting  the  alumina  compound 
down  to  a  perfectly  clear  and  transparent  pro- 
duct, it  is  mixed  with  white  summer  cottonseed 
oil,  previously  blown  at  a  low  temj)erature,  to  a 
consistency  of  about  15°  to  18°  Baume. 

"Valve-Oleum"  Linoleum  is  made  by  using 
linseed  oil,  fish  oil,  rapeseed  oil  or  corn  oil  for 
making  the  alumina  compound^  boiling  with  an 


80      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

addition  of  neutral  oil  and  mixing  with  linseed 
oil  previously  blown  at  a  moderate  heat  to  a  con- 
sistency of  about  18°  Baum^.  In  place  of  alum, 
acetate  of  lead  can  be  used  to  precipitate  the  lino- 
leate  of  soda  with,  thereby  forming  a  linoleate  of 
lead. 

To  detect  one  part  of  oleate  of  alumina  in  ten 
parts  of  mineral  oil,  heat  the  sample  with  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid  over  a  water-bath  and  stir  it 
well.  The  hydrochloric  acid  absorbs  the  alumina 
and  the  fatty  acids  remain  in  the  mineral  oil. 
The  mineral  oil  is  drawn  off  and  treated  with 
soda  lye,  which  unites  with  the  fatty  acids  and 
separates  from  the  mineral  oil. 


X. 


LEATHER  OILS. 

Leather  belts,  harness,  boot  and  shoe  leather 
require  as  much  attention  in  regard  to  lubrica- 
tion as  does  machinery.  Hides  when  deprived 
of  their  natural  lubricating  moisture,  become  dry 
and  easily  break.  When  converted  into  leather 
for  belts,  harness,  boots  and  shoes,  it  would  soon 
become  useless  for  wear  were  it  not  for  the  inter- 
position of  the  fatty  lubricants  known  as  "  leather 
stuffings,"  which  relieve  the  frictional  action  of 
fiber  against  fiber  of  which  leather  is  composed. 
The  more  volatile  these  fatty  lubricants  are  the 
oftener  they  require  renewal,  lest  the  frictional 
heat  and  the  abrasion  of  the  fibers  against  each 
other,  heat,  burn  and  destroy  the  leather.  Just 
as  we  have  recourse  to  processes  by  which  we 
harden  and  strengthen  metal  to  make  it  more 
durable,  so  we  try  to  protect  leather  and  make  it 
more  durable,  by  the  different  finishing  processes 
6  (81) 


82     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

to  which  it  is  subjected,  but  unless  the  frictional 
action  of  fiber  against  fiber  is  relieved  by  constant 
lubrication,  the  frictional  heat  will  destroy  the 
fiber.  For  this  purpose  leather  oils  for  lubri- 
cating, water-proofing,  softening  and  preserving 
leather  are  generally  compounded  after  one  or 
the  other  of  the  following  formulae : 

"  Valve- Oleum  "  Leather  Preserving  and  Water- 
Proofing  Oil. 

Two  barrels  of  Valve-Oleum  "  gelatine  made 
from  neatsfoot  oil,  as  described  on  page  74  et  seq., 
are  compounded  and  well  mixed  with  two  barrels 
of  coon  oil,  neatsfoot  oil  or  fish  oil  (tanners'  oil). 
Thereto  are  added  five  pounds  of  Para-gum,  cut 
into  fine  shreds  and  dissolved  by  heat  in  five  gal- 
lons of  coon  oil  or  neatsfoot  oil.  It  can  be  colored 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  black  West  Virginia 
or  Mecca  oil,  or  Vv^ith  fine  lampblack  ground  in 
fatty  oil.  The  fatty  oils  used  should  previously 
be  heated  until  all  their  hygroscopic  moisture  is 
driven  out,  and  the  arising  scum  skimmed  off*, 
before  mixing  with  the  gelatine. 

An  oil  for  tanners'  use  is  made  also  with 
''Valve-Oleum"  gelatine  and  fish  oil  (train  oil) 


LEATHER  OILS. 


83 


with  additions  of  paraffine  oil  of  low  specific 
gravity. 

A  cheap  harness  oil  is  made  with  one  barrel  of 
"  Valve-Oleum  "  gelatine  and  eight  to  ten  barrels 
of  heavy  black  petroleum  oil  and  colored  with 
gilsey  (Egyptian  asphalt),  gum  or  lampblack 
ground  in  neatsfoot  or  fish  oil. 

A  black  harness  oil  is  also  made  with  fifty 
barrels  of  dip  oil,  fifteen  barrels  of  spindle  or  red 
oil,  five  barrels  of  degras  and  two  barrels  of  lamp- 
black ground  in  neatsfoot  oil  or  fish  oil. 

A  good  belt  oil  can  be  made  by  dissolving  by 
heat  150  pounds  of  rosin  in  one  barrel  of  castor- 
bean  oil  and  scenting  it  with  citronella  or  myr- 
bane  oil.  Paraffine  oil,  in  which  four  to  five 
pounds  of  rosin  to  the  gallon  have  been  dissolved, 
can  be  substituted  for  part  of  the  castor-bean  oil. 

For  belt  oil  Para-gum  also  is  dissolved  in  neats- 
foot oil  and  compounded  with  Valve-Oleum 
heavy  castor  oil. 

A  Belt  Grease "  is  made  by  dissolving  in 
fifteen  parts  of  fish  oil  and  five  parts  of  tallow, 
with  heating  and  stirring,  five  parts  of  India 
rubber  (Para-gum),  cut  into  fine  shreds,  and  add- 
ing four  parts  of  rosin  and  four  parts  of  beeswax  ; 
stir  well  until  congealed  to  proper  consistency. 


84     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Factitious  Paint  Oil. 

A  cheap  substitute  for  linseed  oil  is  made  by 
dissolving  rosin  oil  in  neutral  oil  and  mixing  it 
with  linseed  oil — 2J  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  2J  gal- 
lons of  neutral  oil,  with  from  2J  to  3  pounds  of 
rosin,  the  whole  being  improved  by  boiling  with 
oxidizing  agents  or  acetate  of  lead  until  all  the 
acetic  acid  of  the  latter  has  been  expelled  and  the 
oil  has  become  bright  and  clear. 

A  cheap  paint  oil  is  also  produced  by  com- 
pounding blown  linseed  oil  with  neutral  oil  and 
a  sufficient  amount  of  dryer  made  from  rosin 
spirits. 


XI. 


ADULTERATIONS  OF  FATTY  OILS. 

When  the  market  price  of  lard  oil  is  high  and 
that  of  cottonseed  oil  is  low,  lard  oil  is  often 
adulterated  with  the  latter.  It  is  also  adulterated 
with  petroleum  oils,  especially  prepared  for  that 
purpose,  and  with  addition  of  refined  and  de- 
odorized rosin  oil,  to  equalize  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  mixture  to  that  of  pure  lard  oil.  No.  1 
lard  oil  is  adulterated  with  white  neutral  oil 
and  No.  2  lard  oil  is  adulterated  with  yellow 
neutral  oil. 

Olive  oil  is  also  much  adulterated  with  cotton- 
seed oil,  sunflower  oil  and  others,  when  their 
market  prices,  being  lower  than  that  of  olive  oil, 
warrant  such  adulteration. 

Sperm  oil  is  much  adulterated  with  cheaper 
fish  oils,  well  refined,  deodorized  and  bleached. 

Linseed  oil  is  adulterated  with  corn  oil,  cotton- 
seed oil,  rapeseed  oil,  hempseed  oil  and  rosin  oil. 
(85) 


86      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Sperm  oil  should  not  contain  less  than  four  per 
cent  of  cetin  unless  adulterated.  Shake  one  part 
by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1.84  specific  grav- 
ity, with  four  parts  of  the  oil ;  allow  to  stand  for 
about  twenty  minutes,  shaking  twice  ;  add  three 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  shake  well  and  allow  to 
stand  sixteen  to  twenty  hours;  dilute  then  with 
three  or  four  times  its  volume  of  distilled  water 
and  mix  thoroughly.  On  standing  the  cetin 
floats  on  top  and  can  readily  be  skimmed  off ;  then 
wash,  dry  and  weigh.    It  is  soluble  in  chloroform. 

Castor  oil  is  adulterated  with  blown  oils,  such 
as  linseed,  rape  or  cottonseed  and  rosin  oils.  If 
only  ten  per  cent  of  them  be  present,  they  cause 
a  turbidity  with  absolute  alcohol,  with  which 
castor  oil  is  miscible  in  every  proportion. 


XII. 

TESTING  OILS. 

Alkali  tests  are  made  to  ascertain  first  if  an 
oil  is  a  pure  fatty  oil,  or  a  hydrocarbon  oil,  or  a 
mixture  of  both.  A  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.340  is  prepared 
and  two  volumes  of  this  solution  are  shaken  up 
with  four  volumes  of  the  oil  to  be  tested.  After 
standing,  the  oil  separates  out,  leaving  an  aqueous 
layer  clean  or  slightly  clouded.  If  hydrocarbon 
oils  are  in  large  proportion  in  the  sample,  they 
will  form  a  layer  on  the  top  and  the  aqueous 
layer  will  be  emulsified.  If  the  fatty  oil  is  in 
largest  proportion,  the  smaller  proportion  of 
hydrocarbon  oil  will  be  more  difficult  to  detect. 
To  ascertain  this,  dissolve  a  piece  of  caustic  pot- 
ash, the  size  of  a  pea,  in  5  c.c.  of  alcohol.  Then 
add  a  few  drops  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  and  boil 
for  two  to  three  minutes  and  add  from  3  to  4  c.c. 
of  distilled  water.  If  the  solution  remains  clear, 
(87) 


88      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

only  fatty  oil  is  present.  Mineral  oil  will  cause 
the  solution  to  be  turbid  and  even  as  small  a 
quantity  as  2  per  cent  present  will  show  itself  this 
way. 

The  amount  of  mineral  oil  in  fatty  oils  is  also 
ascertained  by  mixing  25  grammes  of  the  oil  with 
10  to  15  c.c.  of  the  caustic  solution  and  25  c.c.  of 
water  and  5  c.c.  of  alcohol.  This  is  boiled,  con- 
stantly stirring,  for  about  one  hour.  By  that  time 
the  fatty  oil  is  saponified.  Put  the  whole  in  a 
separating  funnel  and  add  more  warm  water  and 
25  c.c.  petroleum  ether ;  shake  for  a  few  minutes 
and  allow  to  stand.  The  upper  stratum  is  com- 
posed of  the  petroleum  ether  and  the  mineral  oil 
and  the  lower  stratum  of  the  aqueous  layer  of  ^oap 
formed  by  the  fatty  matter.  This  is  run  off, 
clean  water  is  added,  stirred  together  and  again 
allowed  to  stand  and  the  aqueous  liquor  run 
off.  This  is  repeated  until  the  latter  runs  off 
perfectly  clear.  Now  put  the  ethereal  layer  into 
a  weighed  vessel,  evaporate  the  ether  and  weigh 
the  remaining  oil ;  the  weight  multiplied  by  four 
gives  the  percentage  of  mineral  oil  in  the  sample. 

A  color  test  can  be  made  by  placing  some  20 
drops  of  the  oil  in  a  porcelain  cup  and  adding 


TESTING  OILS. 


89 


two  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  As  the  acid 
drops  through  the  oil,  streaks  of  color  are  shown, 
and  a  tint  of  characteristic  color  gradually  spreads 
through  the  oil.  Then  stir  the  whole  and  again 
note  the  coloring.  Vegetable  oils  give  various 
colors,  shades  of  yellow-brown  or  green  ;  fish  oils 
turn  to  violet  or  purple,  animal  oils  to  a  reddish- 
brown,  and  hydrocarbon  oils  turn  slightly  to  a 
blackish-brown.  The  test  should  first  be  made 
with  samples  of  known  pure  quality  and  com- 
pared with  the  action  of  the  sample  under  test. 

Agitating  4  c.c.  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  with  10 
c.c.  colorless  nitric  acid  will  show,  after  settling, 
when  olive  oil  has  been  adulterated  with  cotton- 
seed oil,  by  a  brownish  color,  while  pure  olive 
oil  will  not  become  darkened. 

For  a  test  of  cottonseed  oil  in  lard  oil  put  J 
ounce  of  nitro-sulphuric  acid  and  ^  ounce  of  the 
oil  to  be  tested  in  a  glass  vessel  and  stir  well. 
Pure  lard  oil  becomes  hard  in  two  to  three  hours, 
but  when  adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil  the 
sample  may  thicken  but  will  not  become  hard. 

For  a  preliminary  test  for  neutral  oil  in  lard 
oil,  shake  the  suspected  sample  violently  in  a 
bottle.    If  it  contains  neutral  oil  it  will  form 


90     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

beads  or  bubbles  that  will  pass  away  when  the 
oil  is  pure,  but  if  adulterated  with  much  neutral 
oil  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  foam. 

To  detect  small  quantities  of  fatty  oils,  of  J  to 
2  per  cent,  in  a  sample  of  mineral  oil,  some  of 
the  oil  is  heated  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  with 
bits  of  sodium  or  sodium  hydrate,  to  about  230° 
to  250°  F.  Fatty  acid  present  will  solidify  to  a 
jelly  of  more  or  less  consistency,  according  to  the 
amount  of  fatty  oil  therein. 

To  detect  soap  dissolved  in  mineral  oil,  five  to 
ten  per  cent  of  the  oil  is  dissolved  in  about 
fifteen  parts  of  gasoline  or  ether,  and  solution  of 
phosphoric  acid  added.  The  formation  of  a  floc- 
culent  precipitate  indicates  the  presence  of  soap. 

To  detect  acidity  or  alkali  in  mineral  oil,  shake 
a  sample  of  the  oil  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
warm  water,  pour  off  the  oil  when  settled,  and 
test  the  water  with  litmus  paper.  Acidity  will 
turn  blue  litmus  paper  red,  and  if  alkaline,  will 
turn  red  litmus  paper  blue,  and  yellow  turmeric 
paper  brown. 

We  will  not  follow  any  further  into  the  inex- 
haustible field  of  chemical  and  technological 
testing  of  oils,  but  would  call  attention  to  some" 


TESTING  OILS. 


91 


simple  and  practical  methods  for  testing  oils  and 
oil  mixtures,  as  to  their  purity  and  efficiency  as 
lubricants,  that  can  be  carried  out  by  the  most 
inexperienced  investigator. 

First  are  to  be  secured  samples  of  known  purity 
of  the  different  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable  oils 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricants,  and  then 
proceed  with  the  testing  of  the  oils  to  be  investi- 
gated as  follows  : 

All  fatty  oils  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin 
possess  an  odor  and  taste  peculiar  to  themselves, 
which  becomes  more  distinctly  noticeable  when 
the  temperature  of  the  oil  is  increased.  If,  there- 
fore a  few  drops  of  the  oil,  to  be  investigated  as  to 
its  characteristics  or  origin,  are  placed  in  the 
palm  of  one  hand  and  vigorously  rubbed  by  the 
other  until  a  burning  sensation  is  experienced, 
we  can  ascertain  the  individuality  of  the  oil  by 
the  smell  from  the  flavor  known  to  be  peculiar 
to  it  and  corresponding  with  that  of  one  of  the 
samples  of  known  origin  and  purity.  We  can 
thereby  tell  if  it  is  lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  tallow 
oil,  fish  oil,  palm  oil  or  rosin  oil,  etc.,  and  by  this 
method  we  can  in  many  cases  also  ascertain  which 
of  these  oils  may  be  intermixed  with  another. 


92     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

When  the  oils  are  fresh  and  pure  and  carefully 
purified  and  bleached,  their  peculiar  odor  is  not 
so  readily  noticed  as  when  they  are  older ;  but  by 
slightly  heating  between  the  hands  we  are  enabled 
to  recognize  their  characteristic  odor. 

Tasting  oils  will  also  enable  us  to  ascertain 
their  individuality,  when  we  make  comparison 
of  their  taste  with  that  of  the  samples  of  oils,  the 
purity  and  character  of  which  is  known  to  us. 

The  intermixing  of  fatty  oils  for  purposes  of 
adulteration,  when  the  one  oil  can  be  bought  in 
the  market  at  lower  price  than  the  other,  is  not 
very  detrimental  in  their  use  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  but  when  fatty  oils  have  been  adul- 
terated with  petroleum  oils,  the  difference  in  value 
and  the  thereby  lowered  quality  of  the  oil,  de- 
mands investigation.  Lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil, 
neatsfoot  oil  and  other  fatty  oils,  are  more  or  less 
adulterated  with  high  fire  test  petroleum  oils, 
and  with  such  of  them  as  has  been  especially 
prepared  and  deodorized  for  that  purpose.  Such 
adulterations  can  be  detected  by  the  following 
simple  tests : 

When  petroleum  oil  has  been  admixed  in  large 
proportion,  the  simple  pouring  of  some  of  the  oil 


TESTING  OILS. 


93 


on  a  dark  ground,  or,  into  a  smoked  glass  plate, 
in  a  place  where  the  sunlight  can  fall  on  it.  will 
give  sufficient  proof  of  the  preseuce  of  petroleum 
oil,  by  its  bluish,  fluorescent  shining.  Its  pres- 
ence can  also  be  ascertained  by  the  use  of  the 
hydrometer.  As  the  specific  gravity  of  petroleum 
is  so  much  higher  than  that  of  fatty  oils,  the  hy- 
drometer cannot  fail  to  indicate  by  the  so  much 
increased  specific  gravity  of  the  mixture  above 
the  well  known  lower  gravity  of  pure  fatty  oils, 
that  petroleum  is  present  and  how  much  of  it. 
Its  presence  in  fatty  oil  compounds  can  further 
be  ascertained  by  slowly  heating  a  sample  of  the 
suspected  oil  in  a  porcelain  dish  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  with  a  thermometer  suspended  in  it,  and 
by  applying  from  time  to  time  a  lighted  match 
to  it  and  note  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil 
will  ignite.  Petroleum  used  for  compounding 
with  fatty  oils  will  vaporize  and  ignite  at  from 
110°  to  300°  F.  while  fatty  oils  require  for  igni- 
tion twice  as  much  heat. 

To  ascertain  with  what  proportion  of  petroleum 
a  fatty  oil  has  been  adulterated,  samples  are  pre- 
pared and  mixed  in  various  definite  proportions. 
Mark  on  each  sample  the  proportion  of  petroleum 


94      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

added  to  the  oil,  the  specific  gravity  ascertained 
by  the  hydrometer,  and  the  temperature  at  which 
it  became  ignited.  By  submitting  a  sample  of 
the  oil  to  be  investigated  to  the  same  test,  we  can 
easily  ascertain  the  proportion  of  petroleum  it 
contains,  by  comparing  the  result  of  the  test  with 
those  marked  on  the  prepared  samples. 

We  can  tell  of  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  fatty 
oils,  even  in  very  small  proportions,  by  placing  a 
small  quantity  of  the  suspected  oil  on  our  tongue 
and  subjecting  it  to  the  motion  of  mastication, 
the  same  as  if  we  were  tasting  some  other  fatty 
nutriment,  such  as  butter  or  lard.  The  alkaline 
saliva  in  the  mouth  will  act  upon  and  unite  with 
the  fatty  oil  of  the  sample  but  not  with  the  petro- 
leum oil  it  contains,  and  after  the  fatty  oil  has 
become  absorbed  by  the  system,  the  presence  of 
petroleum  will  manifest  itself  by  its  remaining 
nauseating  taste. 

To  prevent  detection  of  adulteration  of  fatty 
oils  by  the  hydrometer  test,  fatty  oils  are  often 
mixed  with  petroleum  and  refined  rosin  oil,  to 
equalize  by  the  low  specific  gravity  of  the  latter 
the  lighter  specific  gravity  of  the  petroleum. 
Their  presence,  however,  is  easily  detected  by 


TESTING  OILS. 


95 


taste  and  likewise  by  smell,  when  heated  by  fric- 
tion between  the  hands,  as  before  explained. 

The  comparative  efficiency  of  oils  for  lubricat- 
ing can  be  tested  in  many  ways  without  the  use 
of  costly  testing  machines.  To  ascertain  the 
gumming  propensities  of  an  oil  we  need  only  to 
spread  some  of  it  in  a  very  thin  layer  over  a 
glass  plate,  protect  it  against  dust,  and  expose  it 
to  the  sunlight  or  other  slow,  dry  heat.  In  a 
short  time  the  gumming  propensity  of  the  oil  will 
be  indicated  by  the  tough  and  sticky  appearance 
of  what  of  the  sample  remains  on  the  glass. 

Viscosity. 

Viscosity  is  the  degree  of  fluidity  of  an  oil. 
The  greater  viscosity  or  body  one  oil  possesses 
over  another  can  be  ascertained  by  allowing  a 
given  amount  of  the  oils  to  be  tested  to  drop  out 
of  the  narrowed  end  of  a  glass  tube,  or  count  the 
drops  falling  from  them  in  one  or  more  minutes 
and  compare  the  difference.  By  varying  the 
test  at  a  colder  or  warmer  temperature,  the  uni- 
form consistency  of  the  oils  can  likewise  be  ascer- 
tained and  compared. 

By  pouring  a  drop  of  oil  to  be  examined  on  a 


96      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

well-cleaned  glass  plate  placed  on  an  incline, 
alongside  of  another  placed  likewise,  and  noting 
the  time  it  takes  for  each  oil  to  reach  a  mark 
made  on  the  bottom  of  the  inclined  plane,  we  can 
observe  to  some  extent  the  greater  viscosity  or 
body  and  clinging  power  one  oil  possesses  over 
the  other.  By  increasing  the  temperature  by 
means  of  an  alcohol  lamp  or  otherwise  we  can 
likewise  judge  of  the  uniform  consistency  one  oil 
maintains  over  another,  or  compare  it  with  like 
tests  made  with  oils  of  known  efficiency. 

Fire  Test. 

The  test  often  made  wdth  cylinder  oil,  by  pour- 
ing some  of  it  into  a  cylinder  chest,  cannot  be 
considered  conclusive,  as  the  temperature  on  the 
outside  of  a  cylinder  chest  is  dry  and  scorching, 
while  the  temperature  inside  the  cylinder,  where 
the  oil  is  expected  to  perform  its  work,  is  moist. 
That  an  oil  would  show  less  tendency  to  evaporate 
in  the  dry  and  scorching  heat  on  top  of  the  cylin- 
der chest,  would  only  indicate  its  higher  fire  test, 
but  high  fire  test  is  no  criterion  as  to  its  quali- 
ties, as  the  temperature  inside  of  the  cylinder  can 
never  be  a  dry  and  scorching  one.    The  fire  test 


TESTING  OILS. 


97 


of  an  oil  should  always  be  in  proper  proportion 
to  its  heat-absorbing  quality,  or  it  will  suffer  de- 
composition and  produce  gummy  deposits  by  its 
inability  to  vaporize  fast  enough  under  the  fric- 
tional  heat  and  carry  its  vapors  diffused  with  the 
exhaust  steam  into  space. 

Simple  Way  of  Testing  Lubricating  Oils. 
A  very  handy  and  simple  way  of  testing  oils  is 
to  place  them  side  by  side  on  white  blotting  paper 
and  place  this  for  a  short  time  on  a  cylinder  chest 
or  a  steam  heater.  The  oil  which  penetrates  the 
blotting  paper  quickest  and  spreads  widest  over 
it,  is  always  the  poorest  and  thinnest  oil,  as  it 
shows  by  its  lightness  and  the  quick  disappear- 
ance of  its  outer  ring,  that  it  is  compounded  from 
material  of  very  light  specific  gravity.  If  by 
giving  it  some  time,  or  by  longer  exposure  to 
heat,  the  whole  of  the  oil  on  the  blotting  paper 
disappears,  the  sample  must  be  composed  entirely 
of  petroleum,  and  when  an  inner  ring,  with  a 
well  discernible  line,  is  formed  and  remains  longer, 
a  proportion  of  parafBne  holding  stock  must  have 
been  compounded  with  lighter  petroleum,  and 
when  a  center  ring,  with  decided  outline  and 
7 


98     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

darker  color,  is  formed,  but  no  permanent  trans- 
lucency  is  imparted  to  the  paper,  the  compound 
must  be  made  of  a  light  hydrocarbon  oil,  with  an 
addition  of  still  residuum  stock,  however  well  re- 
fined or  bleached.  If  the  oil  to  be  examined  has 
been  compounded  from  petroleum,  with  an  addi- 
tion of  lard  oil  or  tallow  oil  or  other  fatty  mat- 
ter, the  blotting  paper  will  retain  its  translucency 
in  the  center  long  after  the  petroleum,  which  at 
first  spread  rapidly  over  and  through  the  paper, 
has  disappeared.  Petroleum  penetrates  blotting 
paper  faster  than  fatty  oils  and  spreads  wider 
over  it  at  first,  but  dries  ofi"  rapidly  and  its  trans- 
lucency disappears,  while  that  of  fatty  oils  re- 
mains, as  one  of  the  principal  characteristics  of 
fatty  oils  is  their  faculty  to  render  paper  perma- 
nently translucent. 

Practical  Tests  of  Lubricating  Oils. 
Tests  made  by  the  practical  use  of  the  oil 
are  by  far  the  best,  but  we  must  not  allow  our- 
selves to  be  deceived  and  be  led  to  attribute  too 
rashly  any  unsatisfactory  results  at  first  obtained, 
to  the  oil  we  are  testing.  If  the  oil  previously 
used  was  an  impure  one  and  of  a  gumming  qua- 


TESTING  OILS. 


99 


lity,  however  satisfactory  it  may  have  appeared 
to  work,  it  will  have  left  its  gummy  deposits  in 
crevices  and  joints  and  in  the  interstices  in  the 
metal,  which  is  commonly  regarded  as  a  bearing 
which  the  oil  has  made  for  itself,  and  when  the 
new  oil  to  be  tested  is  applied  in  too  small  a  quan- 
tity, we  fail  to  observe  that  such  a  small  amount 
of  purer  oil  has  at  first  to  contend  with  and  dis- 
lodge the  deposits,  which  may  be  the  result  of 
long  standing  and  the  accumulations  of  large 
quantities  of  the  oil  formerly  used.  It  is  this  fact 
that  misleads  and  often  causes  the  better  oil  to  be 
condemned,  until  a  larger  and  longer  application 
proves  the  correctness  of  this  statement. 

These  same  facts  will  appear  when  we  apply 
for  a  test  a  poorer  and  impure  oil,  after  having 
used  an  oil  of  purer  and  better  quality.  The 
poorer  oil  finding  all  the  bearings  or  the  cylinder 
clean  and  no  gummy  deposits  to  contend  with 
will,  for  a  time,  appear  to  work  equally  as  well 
as  the  good  oil  that  was  in  use  before. 

Cylinders  and  bearings,  as  well  as  the  feeding 
cups,  should  be  carefully  cleaned  before  testing 
or  using  a  new  oil,  if  we  wish  to  be  able  to  judge 
correctly  as  to  its  quality. 

Objection  is  sometimes  made  by  engineers  to 


100     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

the  stringy  character  of  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  oils, 
but  this  stringy  nature,  while  perhaps  somewhat 
inconvenient  under  careless  handling,  constitutes 
the  very  life  of  the  oils,  secures  their  uniform 
consistency  in  cold  as  well  as  in  warm  weather, 
and  enables  them  to  cling  tenaciously  to  the 
metal,  absorb  the  frictional  heat  as  fast  as  it  is 
generated  by  the  motion,  and  permits  their  body 
to  be  of  light  enough  character  to  vaporize  rapidly 
into  space  with  the  heat  they  have  absorbed. 

Unscrupulous  parties,  making  imitations  of  the 
"  Valve-Oleum  "  oils,  use  their  stringy  charac- 
teristics solely  for  the  purpose  of  artificially  thick- 
ening light  and  otherwise  unsalable  petroleum 
oils,  but  such  mixtures  do  not  stay  together  ;  they 
separate  and  are  not  neutral  and  contain  free 
fatty  acids,  and  are  but  little  more  efficient  for 
lubricating  than  the  cheap  petroleum  distillates. 

By  the  blotter  test,  the  ''Valve-Oleum"  oils 
show  their  fatty  characteristics  by  leaving  per- 
manent, translucent  center  spots  on  the  paper ; 
they  show  their  uniform  consistency  by  being 
slowly  absorbed  by  the  paper  and  spreading  over 
it  without  separating,  and  they  show  their  clean- 
liness by  leaving  no  deposit  of  impurities  on  the 
paper. 


XIII. 


SOLID  LUBRICANTS.  GREASES. 

Solid  lubricants  consist  principally  of  filtered 
stock  or  vaseline,  and  they  are  fed  to  the  bearings 
through  cups  especially  devised  for  that  purpose, 
and  furnished  with  screw  pressure,  or  provided 
with  copper  rods,  which  latter,  touching  the  shaft, 
cause  feeding  of  the  vaseline  or  other  greases 
by  communicating  the  frictional  heat  to  them, 
whereby  they  are  liquified,  and  caused  to  flow 
onto  the  shaft  and  into  the  bearing. 

Greases  for  lubricating  consist  principally  of 
tallow  or  lard,  of  either  or  both,  together  with 
palm  oil,  rapeseed  oil,  degras,  rosin  oil  and 
petroleum  oils  brought  to  a  proper  consistency 
by  semi-saponification  with  weak  lye,  limewater, 
or  lime-soap,  or  lime-paste. 

Fatty  matter  of  all  kinds  and  quality,  residuum 
and  tar  from  refineries,  in  short  all  that  can  be 
worked  into  this  ,  kind  of  lubricant,  and  can  be 
(101) 


102      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

given  a  greasy  appearance  and  consistency,  is 
worked  into  what  is  known  and  sold  in  the 
market  under  the  name  of  "  Lubricating  Grease." 

The  character  of  the  machinery  for  which  this 
kind  of  lubricant  is  used  is  of  the  coarser,  heavier 
kind  ;  hence  less  attention  is  generally  given  to 
ascertain  the  indirect  advantage  that  would  re- 
sult from  the  use  of  grease  of  best  quality,  cost 
being  generally  the  only  point  considered. 

Here  also,  as  with  the  lubricating  oils,  it  is  the 
fatty  acid  alone  which  is  the  lubricating,  that  is, 
the  heat-absorbing  and  eradiating  principle,  held 
to  the  moving  surfaces  by  medium  of  the  stearin, 
palmitin,  rosin  or,  paraffin,  the  latter  being  ulti- 
mately left  as  concentrated  and  charred  gummy 
deposits. 

With  grease  lubricants  the  wear  and  abrasion 
of  the  metal  is  always  greater  than  with  oil 
lubrication,  as  the  consistency  of  the  grease  re- 
quires greater  accumulation  of  frictional  heat  to 
melt  and  convert  it  into  a  liquid  state  before  it  is 
enabled  to  reach  the  place  where  it  is  expected 
to  do  its  work. 

Carefully  conducted  experiments  have  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  it  takes  some  twenty-five  per 


SOLID  LUBRICANTS.  GREASES. 


103 


cent  less  power  to  move  machinery  lubricated 
with  oil  than  when  lubricated  with  grease,  and 
at  a  some  thirty  to  thirty-five  per  cent  lower 
temperature. 

The  additions  of  lime,  graphite  (plumbago), 
lead,  asbestos,  mica,  sulphur,  soapstone  (talc)  and 
all  other  inert  matter,  to  grease,  used  on 
machinery  moving  under  great  pressure  and 
heat,  act  only  as  a  medium,  filling  the  interstices 
in  the  metal,  and  serve  only  as  a  sort  of  cushion 
for  the  real  lubricant,  the  fatty  matter  contained 
in  the  grease.  These  inert  substances  cannot 
vaporize  with  the  frictional  heat  and  must,  there- 
fore, remain  as  gummy  accumulations  and  me- 
tallic abrasions  on  the  bearings. 

Manufacture  of  Greases. 

Most  greases  for  lubricating  are  made  in  the 
following  manner:  Common  red  rosin  oil,  say 
five  hundred  pounds,  is  heated  for  about  one 
hour  with  about  two  pounds  of  calcium  hydrate. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  and  is  skimmed,  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  rosin  oil-lime  soap 
slowdy  stirred  in  until  the  mixture  assumes  a 
buttery  consistency.     Lime  soap  is  made  by 


104      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

slowly  heating  and  mixing  100  pounds  of  crude 
rosin  oil  with  some  80  pounds  of  hydrate  of  lime, 
and  boiling  into  a  molasses-like  consistency. 

For  rosin  grease,  lime  paste  is  made  hy  slak- 
ing say  10  pounds  of  quicklime  with  about  40 
pounds  of  water,  passed  through  a  sieve  to  sep- 
arate all  coarse  particles,  and  for  the  fine  lime 
paste  to  be  allowed  to  settle.  The  water  is  then 
poured  off  and  from  6  to  8  gallons  of  crude  rosin 
oil  are  stirred  into  the  lime  paste  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  hours.  All  accumulated  water 
is  then  drawn  off  and  from  8  to  10  gallons  of 
mineral  or  heavy  petroleum  oil  are  added.  The 
whole  is  then  heated  to  about  230°  to  240°  F., 
stirred  and  well  mixed  and  allowed  to  cool  and 
set  to  proper  consistency. 

A  rosin  grease,  without  heating,  in  the  cold 
way,  is  made  by  mixing  and  stirring  well  to- 
gether 20  gallons  of  crude  paraffine  or  other 
mineral  oil,  in  which  some  80  pounds  of  rosin 
have  previously  been  dissolved  by  heat,  with  a 
lime-paste  made  by  slaking  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  bushel  of  lime,  sifting  it  from  all 
coarse  particles  and  separating  most  of  the  water 
from  it.    It  is  stirred  until  a  smooth,  uniform 


SOLID  LUBRICANTS.  GREASES.  105 

consistency  is  obtained.  From  3  to  5  gallons  of 
crude  rosin  oil  are  then  slowly  added  and  stirred 
to  a  proper  buttery  consistency.  The  product  of 
this  process  is  the  well  known  "  Valve-Oleum 
Zola  Axle  Grease."  Additions  of  fats  or  fatty 
oils  improve  its  quality. 

The  following  are  some  formulas  after  which 
nearly  all  grease  lubricants  are  manufactured  : 

Half  a  pound  of  caustic  soda  is  dissolved  in 
one  gallon  of  water  ;  from  three  to  five  pounds  of 
tallow  and  one-half  to  one  gallon  rosin  oil  are 
added,  and  the  whole  is  heated  to  about  210°  F. 
and  well  mixed,  and  then  stirred,  as  it  cools, 
to  its  proper  consistency. 

Forty  gallons  petroleum  oil,  fifty  pounds  of 
yellow  grease  or  tallow  and  sixty  pounds  of  rosin 
are  heated  together  at  a  temperature  of  about 
240°  F.  From  two  to  two-and-a-half  gallons  of 
soda  lye  are  then  gradually  added,  and  all  is 
mixed  and  stirred  well.  When  cold  it  will  have 
set  in  about  twelve  hours  and  will  be  ready  for 
use. 

For  a  ''cup  grease,"  seventy -five  pounds  of 
tallow,  thirty  to  fifty  pounds  of  rosin,  some  thirty 
to  forty  gallons  of  paraffine  oil,  and  about  ten  to 


106     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

fifteen  pounds  of  oleate  of  soda  or  common  soap 
are  melted  together  and  stirred  until  a  uniform 
and  smooth  buttery  consistency  is  obtained. 

Also :  One  part  of  tallow  or  yellow  grease, 
four  parts  of  cylinder  stock  or  paraffine  oil  of  a 
low  gravity,  and  one-quarter  part  of  caustic  lye 
of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  Baume,  are 
heated  and  stirred  until  cold  and  of  proper  con- 
sistency. 

Dark  axle  grease :  Thirty -five  gallons  West 
Virginia  black  oil,  in  which  some  fifty  pounds  of 
rosin  have  been  dissolved  by  heat,  and  lime-paste 
from  half  a  bushel  of  lime,  are  well  stirred  and 
brought  to  a  proper  consistency  by  the  slow  addi- 
tion of  from  four  to  six  gallons  of  crude  rosin  oil. 

Linseed  oil  grease :  One  hundred  pounds  of 
tallow,  one  hundred  pounds  of  rosin  and  ten  to 
twelve  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  with  from  six  to 
eight  gallons  of  caustic  soda-lye  of  about  five 
degrees  Baume,  are  boiled  together  and  allowed 
to  cool  and  set  to  proper  consistency. 

One  gallon  petroleum  oil,  one-half  pound  tal- 
low, one-half  pound  palm  butter,  one-half  pound 
plumbago  and  one-quarter  of  a  pound  of  soda  are 
heated  and  kept  for  about  an  hour  at  a  temper- 


SOLID  LUBRICANTS.  GREASES.  107 

ature  of  about  180°  F.,  then  allowed  to  cool 
down,  and  are  stirred  until  well  setting .  to  con- 
sistency. 

Or:  Water,  one  gallon,  one-half  pound  soda, 
three  to  five  pounds  of  tallow,  from  six  to  ten 
pounds  of  palm  oil  and  sufficient  rosin  to  give 
the  desired  consistency,  are  heated  to  about  250° 
F.,  well  stirred  until  cooled  down  to  about  70° 
F.,  and  allowed  to  set.  ^ 

Or:  Ten  pounds  of  common  soap  well  dried 
and  cut  in  small  pieces,  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
pounds  of  filtered  cylinder  stock  and  about  fif- 
teen pounds  of  heavy  petroleum  oil,  are  heated  to 
about  230°  to  240°  F.,  and  well  stirred  until  all 
the  soap  is  dissolved,  and  the  whole  is  then  al- 
lowed to  cool  to  proper  consistency. 

Or :  Palm  oil,  tallow,  or  tallow  oil  and  soda, 
dissolved  in  as  little  water  as  possible,  are  heated 
and  stirred  into  a  uniform  buttery  mass. 

Or :  One  gallon  crude  rosin  oil,  two  to  three 
pounds  of  quicklime  slaked  with  about  one  gal- 
lon of  water  are  mixed  and  allowed  to  settle  and 
the  adhering  water  drawn  off.  Heavy  petroleum 
oil  and  from  three  to  five  pounds  of  graphite 
(plumbago)  are  then  added,  and  all  well  mixed 
and  stirred  to  a  uniform  and  buttery  consistency. 


108      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

One  per  cent  of  castor  oil  soap  will  solidify 
paraffine  oils  in  vacuum  to  a  solid  grease. 

An  endless  number  of  like  formulas  could  be 
mentioned,  but  thc}^  are  all  based  on  a  semi- 
saponification  of  fatty  matter  or  oils  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  "  Grease  "  for  lubricating. 


XIV. 


SOME  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

When  a  cylinder  becomes  partly  worn,  or 
ridges  and  scars  are  cut  on  its  bright  surfaces,  or 
a  partial  wearing  of  the  piston  rod  takes  place, 
it  is  absurd  to  lay  such  results  to  the  oil.  The 
cause  of  such  injuries  is  a  purely  mechanical  one  ; 
some  parts  are  loose  or  out  of  line  or  otherwise 
defective  in  construction  and  no  amount  of  oil  or 
fat  of  whatever  quality  is  capable  of  preventing 
gradual  increase  of  the  injury  and  final  necessity 
for  extensive  repairs. 

No  kind  of  oil  or  fat  can  cut  ridges  or  scars  in 
metal.  It  requires  metal  or  inert  substances, 
such  as  silica,  lime,  emery  or  mica  to  do  it.  They 
do  it  suddenly  and  violently  when  dry  and  by 
themselves,  and  they  do  it  slowly  and  silently 
when  intermixed  and  saturated  with  oil  or  fat. 
The  idea  that  mixing  plumbago,  silex,  sulphur 
or  plumbago  (graphite),  etc.,  with  oils  or  fats,  to 
(109) 


110      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

give  them  increased  lubricating  power,  is  errone- 
ous. These  inert  matters  have  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  the  lubricating,  which  is  alone  done 
by  the  fatty,  oily  part  of  the  compound,  leaving 
the  inert  matter  behind,  to  accumulate  with  every 
new  application,  which  by  and  by  will  fairly 
choke  the  cylinder  and  the  valve-chest. 

All  fatty  oils  and  fats,  without  exception  and 
of  however  excellent  quality,  either  alone  or  com- 
pounded with  mineral  oil,  when  applied  as  lubri- 
cants, are  decomposed  by  the  steam  and  by  the 
frictional  heat  they  absorb,  and  their  lighter  con- 
stituents vaporize  and  leave  the  heavier  ones  to 
form  gummy  deposits  with  the  fine  metallic  par- 
ticles, the  result  of  abrasion,  and  with  the  im- 
purities in  the  water  used. 

Such  deposits  cause  dragging  of  the  machinery 
and  waste  of  power,  accumulate  gradually  in 
crevices  and  fill  the  smallest  interstices  in  the 
surface  of  the  metal )  they  settle  all  around  the 
joints  and  are  found  in  abundance  behind  the 
rings  and  piston. 

The  injurious  action  from  the  use  of  tallow  in 
cylinders  is  well  known.  The  action  of  the 
stearin  on  the  metal  increases  the  abrasion,  and 


•  SOME  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  Ill 

injury  is  wrought  slowly  but  entirely  uniformly 
and  by  no  means  in  cutting  ridges  and  scars  in 
the  iron. 

When  tallow  or  very  impure  fatty  oils  have 
been  used,  or  they  have  been  further  compounded 
with  inert  matter,  such  as  plumbago,  etc.,  the 
accumulations  are  still  more  abundant  and  de- 
tached parts  are  frequently  found  worked  into 
marble-like  balls  by  the  continuous  churning 
motion  of  the  piston  ;  they  dry  a'gainst  the  heated 
metal  and  gradually  assume  the  hardness  of 
stone  or  iron. 

Lubricating  oils  which  are  not  so  constituted 
as  to  decompose  readily  and  form  gummy  de- 
posits, are  capable  of  softening  and  gradually 
dissolving  such  hardened  deposits.  Some  parti- 
cles partly  dissolved  become  detached  and  get 
between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  and  com- 
mence cutting  and  scraping  into  the  smooth  sides 
of  the  latter.  A  groaning  noise  gives  audible 
warning  and,  if  the  impediment  is  not  removed 
or  relieved  by  speedy  softening  and  dissolving 
with  more  copious  application  of  better  oil,  the 
injury  inflicted  may  become  very  serious  and 
may  necessitate  the  stopping  of  all  machinery 
and  require  expensive  repairing. 


112     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

There  are  also  numerous  instances  on  record 
where  small  particles  of  metal  broke  off  from 
worn  out  springs  with  too  sharp  and  not  prop- 
erly rounded  edges,  or  from  careless  keying  of 
the  valves,  and  finding  their  way  between  the 
sides  of  the  cylinder  and  piston,  cut  heavy  ridges 
in  the  iron. 

Another  source  of  injury  in  cylinders,  other- 
wise perfectly  clean,  arises  often  from  the  use  of 
poor  packing,  overdone  with  sulphur  or  over- 
heated in  vulcanizing,  which  has  become  brittle 
from  exposure  and  age,  or  being  burnt  from  long 
contact  with  the  heated  metal.  The  ragged 
edges  of  such  packing  will  become  detached, 
contaminate  the  oil,  and  cause  injury. 

If  a  babbit  or  other  metallic  lining  has  been 
placed  in  a  bearing  in  a  bungling  manner,  or 
small  particles  of  the  metal  have  broken  loose 
from  a  raggedly  bored  hole  through  which  the 
oil  is  to  be  applied,  and  such  particles  find  their 
way  between  the  moving  parts,  cutting  and  scar- 
ring of  the  metal  cannot  be  prevented  with  the 
best  of  lubricants. 

If  an  employee  forgets  and  fails  to  apply  oil  in 
proper  time,  and  the  parts  run  dry,  get  heated 


SOME  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS.  113 

and  cutting  takes  place,  the  trouble  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  lubricant,  but  all  this  proves 
that  it  is  impossible  for  an  oil  to  cut  metal," 
but  that  impurities  in  oils,  accidentally  or  inten- 
tionally combined  with  inert  matter,  will  do  it. 

The  parts  of  machinery  where  oil  is  used  for 
lubricating  should  be  kept  clean  and  carefully 
examined,  to  see  if  they  are  in  proper  condition  ; 
that  no  foreign  matter  has  by  chance  got  between 
the  moving  parts  or  is  liable  to  do  so ;  that  keys 
on  wristpins  and  bolts  on  bearings,  hangers,  etc., 
have  not  gradually  been  loosened  by  the  constant 
jarring  of  the  machinery  ;  that  flooring  has  not 
settled  under  heavy  weight  and  thereby  the 
shafting,  attached  to  it,  been  put  out  of  line  or 
otherwise  interfered  with. 

All  these  points  are  generally  only  thought  of 
after  some  accident  has  happened  or  warning  is 
given  by  a  groaning  or  squeaking  noise,  and 
when  some  parts  are  found  heated  and  cut,  and 
the  blame  is  unjustly  laid  to  the  oil,  until  investi- 
gation reveals  the  real  cause. 
8 


XV. 


LUBRICATORS  AND  CUPS. 

The  many  contrivances  commonly  called 
Lubricators,"  by  which  lubricants  are  applied 
to  machinery,  are  often  much  trouble  to  engi- 
neers, as  the  adaptation  of  these  contrivances  is, 
with  many,  as  much  a  consideration  of  price  only 
as  it  is  in  the  purchasing  of  lubricants,  but  with 
lubricators  as  well  as  wdth  lubricants  the  best  are 
always  the  cheapest.  It  is  a  great  oversight  to 
make  the  lubricant  subject  to  the  manner  of  ap- 
plying it,  as  it  is  the  lubricant  that  is  to  do  the 
work  and  not  the  mechanical  contrivance  through 
which  it  is  forced  to  do  it.  There  are  number- 
less such  contrivances,  many  very  ingenious  ones 
and  others  of  faulty  construction,  rather  interfer- 
ing with,  than  assisting,  the  lubricant  to  do  its 
w^ork  properly. 

Cylinder  oils  are  applied  by  the  hand-pump, 
by  the  automatic  pump,  or  through  the  well 
known  sight-feed  lubricators. 

(114) 


LUBRICATORS  AND  CUPS. 


115 


The  hand-pump  admits  the  oil  too  irregularly, 
too  much  at  one  time,  not  enough  at  another, 
either  from  neglect  or  oversight. 

The  automatic  pump,  such  as  the  first  and  well 
known  Moses  Pump,"  and  the  later  improved 
styles  are  the  best  means  for  applying  oils  to  cyl- 
inders with  proper  regularity.  With  the  auto- 
matic pump  the  oil  is  not  brought  in  contact  with 
water  or  steam  before  entering  the  cylinder.  It 
supplies  the  oil  with  the  starting  of  the  engine 
and  ceases  to  do  so  when  the  engine  is  stopped, 
and  all  the  attention  that  is  required  is  to  keep 
the  pump  supplied  with  oil.  Any  kind  of  oil,  if 
clean  and  free  from  grit,  can  be  fed  through  these 
pumps,  and  the  amount  to  be  fed  is  easily  regu- 
lated by  the  shorter  or  longer  stroke  that  is  given 
at  its  connection  with  the  engine. 

The  proper  feeding  of  cylinder  oil  through  the 
modern  sight-feed  cup,  now  generally  used,  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  understanding  by  the  engi- 
neer as  how  to  use  it  properly.  All  the  many 
sight-feed  cups  are  devised  on  the  principle  of 
displacing  the  oil  from  the  cup,  drop  by  drop,  by 
the  water  condensed  from  the  steam  before  the 
latter  reaches  the  cup.    It  requires  a  little  time 


116     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  PATS. 

and  patience  when  starting  or  refilling  these  cups, 
to  wait  until  sufficient  steam  has  been  condensed 
and  enough  water  been  accumulated  to  oper- 
ate the  cup  properly  and.  get  the  oil  to  feed  with 
proper  regularity;  otherwise  the  steam  will  rile 
the  oil.  Introducing  some  water  in  the  cup 
before  filling  with  the  oil,  and  slowly  turning  the 
steam  on  and  regulating  the  feeding,  will  prevent 
overheating  and  allow  of  regulating  at  once  the 
proper  condensing  of  the  steam  and  the  regular 
displacement  of  the  oil. 

The  use  of  impure  oils  should  be  carefully 
avoided  and  the  cleaning  of  the  cup  not  attempted 
by  blowing  live  steam  through  it,  as  thereby  the 
fatty  deposits  from  the  oil,  in  connection  with 
impurities  in  the  water  used  for  the  steam,  are 
baked  to  the  sides  and  openings  of  the  tubes  in 
successive  layers  by  the  latent  heat  held  there  by 
the  metal,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the 
scale  in  boilers  is  produced  from  the  slimy,  earthy 
deposits  of  the  water,  by  baking  and  incrusting 
them  on  the  iron  by  the  latent  heat  under  the 
prevalent  and  injudicious  practice  of  blowing 
off  boilers."  Sight- feed  cups  should  be  taken  off 
from  time  to  time  and  carefully  cleaned  with 
benzine  or  coal  oil  and  a  swapper. 


LUBRICATORS  AND  CUPS. 


117 


It  is,  however,  not  a  question  alone  of  merely 
getting  the  oil  into  the  cylinder,  but  the  oil  must 
possess  sufficient  power  to  cling  to  the  metallic 
surfaces  of  the  cylinder  and  the  valves,  in  order 
to  resist  its  being  blown  out  with  the  exhaust 
before  its  work  has  been  done. 

An  oil  that  does  its  work  satisfactorily  when 
applied  direct  with  a  pump,  but  will  not  do  so 
through  any  of  the  many  patent  sight-feeding 
devices,  proves  conclusively  that  the  lubricator 
or  the  wrong  handling  of  it  should  be  blamed, 
not  the  oil. 

There  is  an  endless  number  of  cups  of  all  kinds 
of  construction  to  apply  lubricants  to  the  bearings 
of  shafting  and  all  kinds  of  machinery.  For 
feeding  oils,  those  will  command  the  most  atten- 
tion that  will  allow  the  operator  to  see  at  a  glance 
if  the  feeding  is  regular  and  uninterrupted. 
They  all  require  more  or  less  adjusting  to  prop- 
erly regulate  the  amount  to  be  fed  and  allow  the 
oils  to  pass  through  the  aperture,  according  to 
their  limpidity  or  viscosity. 

In  some  of  them  the  flow  of  oil  is  regulated 
by  controlling  the  width  of  the  aperture  with 
opening  and  closing  devices  ;  in  others  a  wick  is 


118     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

placed  over  the  aperture,  to  secure  regular  and 
slow  feeding  on  capillary  principle,  and  still  in 
others  a  rod,  with  flattened  side,  is  placed  to  pre- 
vent a  too  rapid  flow  of  the  oil.  If  they  are 
properly  handled  and  attended  to  and  proper 
judgment  is  used  in  adjusting  them,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  characteristics  of  the  oil  used,  most 
of  them  will  answer  their  purpose  satisfactorily. 

In  those  cups  which  feed  with  a  wick,  it  is 
important  that  the  number  of  strands  in  the 
wick  should  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the  lim- 
pidity or  viscosity  of  the  oil  used,  and  in  those 
cups  separated  with  metallic  stem,  with  a  flat- 
tened side,  the  latter  should  be  filed  still  flatter 
or  the  stem  removed  entirely  when  a  change  is 
made  from  a  limpid  and  easy-flowing  oil  to  one 
which  has  a  heavy  body  of  uniform  consistency. 

In  all  cups  exposed  to  varying  temperatures, 
only  such  oils  should  be  used  as  will  not  congeal 
and  thereby  become  unable  to  flow  and  feed 
through  the  aperture.  Frequently  when  chang- 
ing from  one  oil  to  another,  and  especially  when 
the  oil  first  used  was  of  a  gummy  character,  and 
the  new  oil  does  not  possess  this  objectionable 
quality,  the  oil  may  at  first  feed  well  enough 


LUBRICATOKS  AND  CUPS. 


119 


through  the  aperture,  without  the  necessity  of 
changing  its  adjustment,  but  on  account  of  its 
gradual  loosening  the  almost  imperceptible  coat- 
ing or  gummy  film  on  the  sides  of  the  cup,  the 
latter  is  apt  to  obstruct  the  opening  and  the  oil 
will  be  unable  to  force  its  passage  through,  and 
the  bearing,  running  warm,  the  oil  will  unjustly 
be  condemned  as  being  a  poor  lubricant. 

Cups  especially  designed  for  feeding  grease  are 
also  of  varied  construction  and  character.  These 
cups  should  also  have  apertures  proportionate  to 
the  melting  quality  of  the  grease  used. 

There  are  cups  where  it  is  intended  to  force  the 
grease  down  by  pressure  or  by  springs,  which 
consequently  require  much  attention  and  adjust- 
ing and  cannot  be  considered  automatic  feeders. 

Those  cups  provided  with  metallic  stems,  rest- 
ing on  the  shaft,  to  work  on  the  principle  that 
the  frictional  heat  conveyed  through  these  stems 
will  melt  the  grease  and  make  it  limpid  enough 
to  flow  down  on  them,  also  fail  to  secure  perfect 
lubrication,  as  they  can  only  begin  and  continue 
to  lubricate  after  sufficient  heat  has  accumulated 
by  which  to  keep  the  grease  melting. 

As  running  machinery  under  increased  heat 


120     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

means  expansion  of  the  metal,  abrasion  of  the 
parts  and  waste  of  power,  the  deficiency  of  grease 
lubrication  is  apparent.  The  only  reliable  lubri- 
cating with  grease  is  through  long-slotted  aper- 
tures in  the  box,  which  allow  the  grease  to  lay 
directly  on  the  parts  in  motion. 


XVI. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Weight  is  the  measure  of  gravity.  The 
specific  gravity  of  any  body  is  the  proportion 
which  the  weight  of  a  certain  amount  of  that 
body  bears  to  the  same  amount  of  another  body 
which  is  taken  as  standard.  The  standard 
adopted  for  solid  and  liquid  bodies  is  water,  at 
the  temperature  of  60°  F. 

The  specific  gravity  of  liquids  is  most  accur- 
ately ascertained  by  means  of  the  specific  gravity 
bottle,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  hold  exactly 
1000  grains  of  distilled  water.  The  water  being 
emptied  out  and  the  bottle  filled  with  the  liquid 
to  be  tested,  is  weighed  on  a  correct  scale.  The 
result  gives  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  the  fluid 
equal  in  bulk  to  1000  grains  of  water,  and  this 
weight,  divided  by  1000,  represents  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid. 

The  specific  gravity  of  oils  and  fats,  which  are 
(121.) 


122     FBICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

all  lighter  than  water,  except  some  of  the  tar 
oils,  is  handily  ascertained  by  means  of  the 
Baume  Hydrometer,  constructed  for  the  weighing 
of  liquids  lighter  than  water.  The  oil  is  put  in 
the  hydrometer  jar — a  tall  glass  vessel — and  the 
hydrometer  placed  in  it  so  that  it  will  float  up- 
right. The  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  is  exactly 
indicated  by  the  degree  on  the  scale  of  the 
hj^drometer  to  which  the  latter  sinks.  The 
measure  is  always  taken  at  60°  F.,  and  for  every 
ten  degrees  above  that  temperature,  one  degree  is 
subtracted  from  the  reading,  and  for  every  ten 
degrees  below  60°  F.,  one  degree  is  added  to  the 
reading  on  the  hydrometer  scale.  Fats  and  oils, 
solid  at  ordinary  temperature,  should  be  heated 
until  liquid  enough  to  allow  the  hydrometer  to 
float  easily  in  them,  to  indicate  their  specific 
gravity. 

Table  of  Baume  degrees^  the  specific  gravity  they 
represent  and  the  corresponding  weight  of  the 
liquids  per  gallon  : 


Degree  Baume.       Specific  Gravity.    Pounds  in  One  Gallon. 

10  1.000  8.33 

11  .9929  8.27 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 


12 

.9859 

8.21 

13 

.9790 

8.16 

14 

.^722 

8.10 

15  (castor  oil) 

.9655 

8.04 

16 

.9589 

7.99 

17 

.9523 

7.93 

18 

.9459 

7.88 

19 

.9395 

7.83 

20 

.9333 

7.78 

21 

.9271 

7.72 

22 

.9210 

7.67 

23 

.9150 

7.62 

24 

.9090 

7.57 

25 

.9032 

7.53 

26 

.8974 

7.48 

27 

.8917 

7.43 

28 

.8860 

7.38 

29 

.8805 

7.34 

30 

.8750 

7.29 

31 

.8695 

7.24 

32 

.8641 

7.20 

KftJ 

.8588 

7  15 

34 

.8536 

7.11 

35 

.8484 

7.07 

36 

.8433 

7.03 

124  FRICTION, 


LUBRICATION, 


OILS 


AND  FATS. 


37 

.8383 

6.98 

38 

.8333 

6.94 

39 

.8284 

6.90 

40 

.8235 

6.86 

41 

.8187 

6.82 

42 

.8139 

6.78 

43 

.8092 

6.74 

44 

.8045 

6.70 

45 

.8000 

6.66 

46 

.7954 

6.63 

47 

.7909 

6.59 

48 

.7865 

6.55 

49 

.7821 

6.52 

50 

.7777 

6.48 

51 

.7734 

6.44 

52 

.7692 

6.41 

53 

.7650 

6.37 

54 

.7608 

6.34 

55 

.7567 

6.30 

56 

.7526 

6.27 

57 

.7486 

6.24 

58 

.7446 

6.20 

59 

.7407 

6.17 

60 

.7368 

6.14 

61 

.7329 

6.11 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 


62 

.7290 

6.07 

63 

.7253 

6.04 

64 

.7216 

6.01 

65 

.7179 

5.98 

66 

.7142 

5.95 

67 

.7106 

5.92 

68 

.7070 

5.89 

69 

.7035 

5.86 

70 

.7000 

5.83 

75 

.6829 

5.69 

80 

.6666 

5.55 

85 

.6511 

5.42 

90 

.6363 

5.30 

95 

.6222 

5.18 

INDEX. 


ACIDITY,  detection   of,  in 
mineral  oil,  90 
Adamantine  candles,  23 
Adulterations  of  fatty  oils,  85,  86 
Alkali,  detection  of,  in  mineral 
oil,  90 
tests,  87,  88 
Almond   oil,    occurrence  and 

properties  of,  35 
Alumina,  oleate  of,  detection  of, 
in  mineral  oil,  80 
oleate  of,  preparation  of, 
_  74-77 

Aluminium  chloride,  use  of,  for 
desulphurizing  petroleum,  67 
Anilin  oil,  54 

Axle  grease,  dark,  preparation 
of,  106 

BAUM£  degrees,  the  specific 
gravity  they  represent 
and  the  corresponding 
weight  of  the  liquids  per 
gallon,  table  of,  122-125 
hydrometer,  use  of,  122 
Bearings,  overheating  of,  7 
Belt  grease,  83 

oil,  83 
Benzine,  58,  59 

deodorizing  of,  65,  66 
series,  69 
Benzol,  53 

Black  lubricating  oil,  63 
Blotter  test,  97,  98 
Blown  cottonseed  oil,  72 

rapeseed  oil,  72 
Bone  fat,  21,  22 

grease,  21,  22 


CART,  traction  of  a,  3 
Castor  oil,  adulteration  of, 
86 

commercial,  pre- 
paration of,  79 
occurrence  and 
properties  of, 
29,  30 

Castoroleum,  preparation  of,  79 
Cetin,  test  for  content  of,  in 

sperm  oil,  86 
Clarifying,  refining  and  bleach- 
ing oils  and  fats,  43-49 
Coal-tar  oil,  53 

uses  of,  64 
Cocoanut  oil  and  palm  oil,  33,  34 
occurrence  and 
properties  of,  34 
Coefficient  of  friction,  2 
Color  test,  88,  89 
Colza  oil,  occurrence  and  prop- 
erties of,  32,  33 
Copra,  34 

Corn  oil,  occurrence  and  prop- 
erties of,  36,  37 
Cosmoline,  63 
Cottonseed  oil,  blown,  72 

occurrence  and 
properties  of,  32 
refining  of,  44,  45 
test  for,  in  lard 

oil,  89,  90 
thickening  of,  71 , 
72 

Cup  grease,   manufacture  of, 

105,  106 
Cups  and  lubricators,  114-120 
feeding  with  a  wick,  118 

(127) 


128 


INDEX. 


Cups  for  feeding  grease,  119 
regulation  of  the  flow  of  oil 
in,  117,  118 
Cylinder,  causes  of  the  wearing 
of  the,  109,  110 
oil,  compounding  of,  68,  69 
preparation  of  78,  79 
production  of,  62,  63 
steam  refined,  62 
oils,  pumps  for  the  applica- 
tion of,  114,  115 
.  stock,  filtered,  63 
Cylinders,  injurious  action  from 
the  use  of  tallow  in,  110, 
111 

sources  of  injury  in,  112, 
113 

DARK  axle  grease,  prepara- 
tion of,  106 
Deblooming  petroleum  oils,  65 
Degras,  bleaching  and  deodor- 
izing of,  47 
factitious,  28 

production  and  properties 
of,  27,  28 
Deodorizing  petrol  oil,  65,  66 
Desulphurizing  petroleum,  56, 
57 

Distillates,  neutral,  60 

purification  and  bleaching 
of,  59 

Distillation  of  petroleum,  58-63 

of  wood,  53 
Drying  oils,  14,  15 

ELAIN  or  red  oil,  production 
and  properties  of,  22,  23 
Engine  oil,  compounding  of, 
69-71 
preparation  of,  78 
Essential  oils,  15,  16 

EAT,  cleaning  and  bleaching 
of,  48 
Fats  and  oils,  13-17 


Fats  and  oils,  clarifying,  refin 
ing  and  bleaching 
of,  43-49 
oils  of  animal  and  veg- 
etable origin,  their 
characteristics,  and 
how  they  are  ob- 
tained, 18-42 
Fatty  oil,  detection  of  mineral 
oil  in,  88,  89 
detection  of  petroleum 
oil  in,  92-94 
oils,  14 

adulterations  of,  85,  86 
compounding  petroleum 

with,  69,  70 
decomposition  of,  110 
detection  of  small  quanti- 
ties of,  in  mineral  oil, 
90 

precipitation    of,  with 

mineral  salts,  73 
sweet  spirit  of  the,  41 , 42 
testing  of,  by  odor  and 

taste,  91,  92 
thickening  of,  71,  72 
Filtered  cylinder  stock,  63 
Fire  test,  96,  97 
Fish  oils  and  spermaceti,  23-26 
Fixed  oils,  14 
Friction,  1-4 

coefficient  of,  2 
definition  of,  1 
laws  of,  1-3 
of  motion,  2 
of  quiescence,  2 
rolling,  1,  3 
sliding,  1 
Frictional  heat,  4 

absorption  of,  by 

metal,  7 
creation  of,  8 

GINGELLY  oil,  occurrence 
and  properties  of,  31,  32 
Glycerin,  occurrence  and  prop- 
erties of,  41,  42 


INDEX. 


129 


Gravity  bottle,  use  of,  121 
Grease,  bleaching  of,  48,  49 
cups  for  feeding,  119 
lubricants,  formulas  for  the 
manufacture  of,  105-108 
reliable  lubricating  with, 
120 

Greases,  101-108 

manufacture  of,  103-108 
Green  oil,  51 

HARNESS  oil,  black,  83 
cheap,  83 
Headlight  oil,  59 
Heat,  frictional,  3 

absorption    of,  by 

metal ,  7 
creation  of,  8 
Hempseed  oil,  occurrence  and 

properties  of,  33 
Horse  tallow  and  neatsfoot  oil, 
21,  22 
production  and  prop- 
erties of,  22 
Hydrocarbons,  14 

TOINT-WATER,  6 


KEROSENE  oil,  deodorizing 
of,  65,  66 
Kidney  oil,  41 

LARD  and  lard  oil,  18,  19 
occurrence  and  proper- 
ties of,  18,  19 
oil,  adulteration  of,  85 
grades  of,  19 
preparation  and  prop- 
erties of,  19 
test  for  cottonseed  oil 
in,  89,  90 
Laws  of  friction,  1-3 
Leather  oils,  81-84 

preserving  and  waterproof- 
ing oil,  82,  83 
stuffings,  81 


Lime  paste  for  rosin  grease, 

preparation  of,  104 
Linolein,  39 

Linoleum,  preparation  of,  79,80 
Linseed  oil,  adulteration  of,  85 
grease,  preparation  of, 

106,  107 
occurrence  and  prop- 
erties of,  38,  39 
Lubricants,  solid,  101-108 
Lubricating,  necessity  of,  5 
oil,  black,  63 

oils,  manufacture  of,  67-72 
practical  tests  for,  98-100 
simple  way  of  testing, 
97,  98  _ 
petroleum  oils  for,  63,  64 
test    of   the  comparative 
efficiency  of  oils,  for,  95 
Lubrication,  5-12 

laws  of,  taught  by  nature,  6 
Lubricators  and  cups,  114-120 
trouble  caused  by,  114 

MACHINERY     oil,  com- 
pounding of,  69-71 
Marrow  tallow,  21,  22 
Metal,  absorption  of  frictional* 

heat  by,  7 
Metallic  compounds,  soft,  lub- 
ricating with,  9 
Mineral    castor,    heavy  and 
stringy,  preparation  of, 
77 

oil,  detection  of  acidity  and 
alkali  in,  90 
detection    of,   in  fatty 

oils,  88,  89 
detection  of   oleate  of 

alumina  in,  80 
detection  of  small  quanti- 
ties of  fatty  oils  in,  90 
detection  of  soap  in,  90 
oils,  16,  50-54 
seal  oil,  60 
Moses  pump,  115 
Motion,  friction  of,  2 


130 


INDEX. 


Mustard   seed   oil,  occurrence 

and  properties  of,  38 
Mutton  fat,  20 
Myrbane  oil,  53,  54 

NEATSFOOT  oil  and  horse 
tallow  oil,  21,  22 
oil,  preparation  and  prop- 
erties of,  21 
Neutral  distillates,  60 

oils,  purification  and 
bleaching  of,  61 
Nigerseed  oil,  occurrence  and 

properties  of,  .38 
Nitrobenzol,  53,  54 
Non-drying  oils,  14 

OHIO  crude  oils,  56,  57 
Oil,  almond,  35 
anilin,  54 
castor,  29,  30 
chemical  process  in  the 

transformation  of,  11 
coal  tar,  53 
cocoanut,  34 
colza,  32,  33 
consumption  of,  10 
corn.  St),  37 
cottonseed,  32 
gingelly,  31,  32 
green,  51 
hempseed,  33 
kidney,  41 
lard,  19 
linseed,  38,  39 
mustard  seed,  38 
myrbane,  53,  54 
neatsfoot,  21 
nigerseed,  38 
olive,  30,  31 
palm,  33,  34 
paraffin e,  51 
peanut,  37,  38 
pine,  41 

poppy  seed,  35,  36 
rapeseed,  32,  33 
red,  22,  23 


Oil.  rosin,  40,  41 
seal,  25,  26 
sesame,  31,  32 
signal,  64 
sperm,  25 
sunflower,  31 
tallow,  20,  21 
train,  26 
turpentine,  41 
whale,  26 
wood  tar,  53 
Oils  and  fats,  13-17 

clarifying,  refining 
and  bleaching  of, 
43-49 
of  animal  and  vege- 
table origin,  their 
character  i  s  t  ic  s, 
and  how  they  are 
obtained,  18-42 
and  oil  mixtures,  practical 
methods  for  testing,  91- 
95 

bleaching  and  deodorizing 

of,  45-47 
clarifying  of,  43,  44 
classes  of,  13,  14 
definition  of,  13 
drying,  14,  15 
fatty,  14 
fixed,  14 

lubricating,  manufacture 

of,  67-72 
mineral,  16,  50-54 
neutral,  61 
non-drying,  14 
petroleum,  16,  17,  55-66 
refining  of,  44 
tar,  52-54 

test  of  the  comparative  effi- 
ciency of,  for  lubricat- 
ing, 95 

testing  of,  87-100 

thickened,  71,  72 

valve-oleum,  73-80 

vegetable,  14 

volatile  or  essential,  15,  16 


INDi>X. 


131 


Oleate  of  alumina,  detection  of, 
in  mineral  oil,  80 
of  alumina,  preparation  of, 
74-77 

Olein,  separation  of,  from  lard, 
18,  19 

Olive  oil,  adulteration  of,  85 

occurrence  and  proper- 
ties of,  30,  31 
Oxy  hydro-carbons,  13,  14 

PAINT  oil,  factitious,  84 
Palm  butter,  34 
oil  and  cocoanut  oil,  33, 
34 

occurrence  and  proper 
ties  of,  33,  34 
Paraffine  oil,  51 

wax,  extraction  of.  61 
Peanut    oil,    occurrence  and 

properties  of,  37,  38 
Pennsylvania,  petroleum  oils  of, 
56 

Petrolatum,  63 

Petroleum,    compounding  of, 
with  fatty  oils,  69,  70 
desulphurizing  of,  56,  57 
distillation  of,  58-63 
occurrence  of,  55,  56 
oil,  detection  of,  in  fatty 

oil,  92-94 
oils,  16,  17,  55-66 
deblooming  of,  65 
for  lubricating,  63,  64 
imparting  a  viscous  con- 
sistency to,  68 
Pine  oil,  41 
tar,  41 

Plumbago,  absorption  of  fric- 

tional  heat  by,  9 
Poppyseed  oil,  occurrence  and 

properties  of,  35,  36 
Practical  suggestions,  109-113 
Pumps  for  the  application  of 

cylinder  oils,  114,  115 

QUIESCENCE,  friction  of,  2 


RAILWAY,  traction  on  a,  3 
Rapeseed  oil,  blown,  72 

occ  u  r  r  e  n  c  e 
and  proper- 
ties of,  32, 
33 

thickening 
of,  71,  72 
Red  oil  or   elain,  production 

and  properties  of,  22,  23 
Residuum  oil,  filtering  of,  63 
Rolling  friction,  1,  3 
Rosin  grease,   preparation  of, 
104,  105 
occurrence  and  properties 
of,  40 

oil  and  turpentine,  40,  41 
occurrence  and  proper- 
ties of,  40,  41 
Rumford,  Count,  experiments 
by,  7 

SCOTCH  shale,  distillation  of, 
50,  51 

Seal  oil,  occurrence  and  proper- 
ties of,  25,  26 
Sesame    oil,    occurrence  and 

properties  of,  31 ,  32 
Shale  oil,  grades  of,  52 
Sight-feed  cups,  115,  116 
Signal  oil,  64 
Sliding  friction,  1 
Soap,  detection  of,  in  mineral 

oil,  90 
Solid  lubricants,  101-108 
Specific  gravity,  121-125 
Spermaceti  and  fish  oils,  23-26 
occurrence  and  properties 
of,  23,  24 
Sperm  oil,  adulteration  of,  85 
occurrence  and  prop- 
erties of,  25 
test  for  content  of  cetin 
^  in,  86 
Spindle  oil,  60 

Standard  white  or  export  oil,  59 
Steam  refined  cylinder  oil,  62 


132 


INDEX. 


Straight  run,  60 

Sunflower  oil,  occurrence  and 

properties  of,  31 
Sweet  spirit  of  the  fatty  oils, 

41,  42 

TABLE  of  Baum^  degrees, 
the  specific  gravity  they 
represent,  and  the  corre- 
sponding weight  of  the 
liquids  per  gallon,  122-125 
Tallow  and  tallow  oil,  19-21 
cleaning  and  bleaching  of, 
48 

injurious  action  from  the 
use  of ,  in  cylinders,  110, 
111 

oil,  production  and  prop- 
erties of,  20,  21 
properties  of,  20 
Tar  oils,  52-54 
Test,  alkali,  87,  88 
Testing  lubricating  oils,  simple 
way  of,  97,  98 
oils,  87-100 

and  oil  mixtures,  prac- 
tical methods  for,  91- 
95 

Tests,  practical,  for  lubricating 

oils,  98-100 
Thickened  oils,  71,  72 
Traction  of  a  cart,  3 
on  a  railway,  3 
Train  and  whale  oils,  26 


Train  oil,  bleaching  and  deodor- 
izing of,  48 
Turpentine,  oil  of,  41 

yALVE-OLEUM  castor- 
V  oleum,  preparation  of, 

79 

Oleum,  castor  oil,  pre- 
paration of,  79 
cylinder  oil,  prepara- 
tion of,  78,  79 
engine  oil,  prepara- 
tion of,  78 
leather  preserving  and 
waterproofing  oil, 
_  82,  83 

linoleum,  preparation 

of,  79,  80 
oils,  73-80 
foundation  of,  73 
Vaseline,  63 
Vegetable  oils,  14 

bleaching  of,  43 
Viscosity,  test  for,  95,  96 
Volatile  oils,  15,  16 

WATEK  white  oil,  59 
West  Virginia  oil,  63 
Whale  and  train  oils,  26 
Wood,  distillation  of,  53 

tar  oil,  53 
Wool  fat,  production  and  prop- 
erties of,  27 


INDUSTRIAL  LITERATURE 


Civilization  without  Diversified  Industries  is  an  Impossibility 
and  all  History  Bears  Witness  to  this  Great  Truth.        H.  C.  B. 


CATALOGUE 

OP 

Practical  and  Scientific  Books 

PUBLISHED  BY 

Henry  Carey  Baird  &  Co. 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS. 

810  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


Any  of  the  Books  comprised  in  this  Catalogue  will  be  sent  by  mail, 
free  of  postage,  to  any  address  in  the  wcrld,  at  the  publication  prices, 

>9i^  A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  94  pages,  8vo  ,  will  be  sent  free  and  free 
of  postage,  to  any  one  in  any  part  of  the  world,  who  will  furnish 
his  address. 

-O*  Where  not  otherwise  stated,  all  of  the  Books  in  this  Catalogue 
are  bound  in  muslin. 


AMATEUR  MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP: 

A  treatise  containing  plain  and  concise  directions  for  the 
manipulation  of  Wood  and  Metals,  including  Casting,  Forg- 
ing, Brazing,  Soldering  and  Carpentry.  By  the  author  of 
the  "Lathe  and  Its  Uses."  Seventh  edition.  Illustrated. 
8vo  I1.50 

ARLOT. — A  Complete  Guide  for  Coach  Painters: 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Arlot,  Coach  Fainter,  for 
eleven  years  Foreman  of  Painting  to  M.  Eherler,  Coach 
Maker,  Paris.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer. 
To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Information  re- 
specting the  Materials  and  the  Practice  of  Ccach  and  Car 
Painting  and  Varnishing  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.    i2mo  $125 

I 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


ARMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Prac- 
tical Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and 
Machinist's  and  Engineer's  Drawing  Companion: 

Forming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and 
Architectural  Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud 
the  elder,  Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and 
Industry,  Paris,  and  M.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amo- 
roux.  Civil  Engineers.  Rewritten  and  arranged  with  addi- 
tional matter  and  plates,  selections  from  and  examples  of 
the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism  of  the 
day.  By  William  Johnson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edi- 
tion, 4to.,  cloth  $5-00 

ARROWSMITH.— The  Paper-Hanger's  Companion: 

Comprising  Tools,  Pastes,  Preparatory  Work;  Selection  and 
Hanging  of  Wall- Papers;  Distemper  Painting  and  Cornice- 
Tinting;  Stencil  Work;  Replacing  Sash-Cord  and  Broken 
Window  Panes;  and  Useful  Wrinkles  and  Receipts.  By 
James  Arrowsmith.  A  New,  Thoroughly  Revised,  and 
Much  Enlarged  Eidtion.    Illustrated  by  25  engravings,  162 

pages.    (1905)  ^^-^^ 

ASHTON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Design- 
ing Fancy  Cotton  and  Woolen  Cloths  from  Sample: 

Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the 
methods  of  spooling  and  making  out  harness  for  cross  drafts 
and  finding  any  required  reed;  with  calculations  and  tables 
of  yarn.  By  Frederic  T.  Ashton,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield, 
Mass.    With  fifty-two  illustrations.    One  vol.  folio.  ..  .$4.00 

ASKINSON.— Perfumes  and  their  Preparation: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  Com- 
plete Directions  for  Making  Handkerchief  Perfumes,  Smellmg- 
Salts,  Sachets,  Fumigating  Pastils;  Preparations  for  the  Care 
of  the  Skin,  the  Mouth,  the  Hair;  Cosmetics,  Hair  Dyes,  and 
other  Toilet  Articles.  By  G.  W.  Askinson.  Translated 
from  the  German  by  Isidor  Furst.  Revised  by  Charles 
Rice.    32  illustrations.    8vo  $3-00 

BAIRD.— The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  and  Manager's 
and  Carder's  Guide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning;  giving  the  Dimen- 
sions and  Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calcula- 
tions, etc.;  with  notices  of  recent  Improvements;  together 
with  Rules  and  Examples  for  making  changes  in  the  size  and 
numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn.  Compiled  from  the  papers 
of  the  late  Robert  H.  Baird.    256  pp.,  i2mo  $1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  3 


BEANS. — A  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Location  of 
Railroads : 

By  E.  W.  Beans,  C.  E.    Illustrated.    i2mo.    Morocco  $1.00 

BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon 
Frames,  Barn  Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church 
Spires,  etc.  Comprising  also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building, 
with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and  valuable  Tables.  Illus- 
trated by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  nearly  200  figures. 
By  William  E.  Bell,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo  $5.00 

BERSCH.— Cellulose,   Cellulose   Products,   and  Rubber 
Substitutes: 

Comprising  the  Preparation  of  Cellulose,  Parchment- Cellu- 
lose, Methods  of  Obtaining  Sugar,  Alcohol,  and  Oxalic  Acid 
from  Wood-Cellulose;  Production  of  Nitro-Cellulose  and 
Cellulose  Esters;  Manufacture  of  Artificial  Silk,  Viscose, 
Celluloid,  Rubber  Substitutes,  Oil-Rubber,  and  Faktis.  By 
Dr.  Joseph  Bersch.  Translated  by  William  T.  Brannt. 
41   Illustrations.    (1904)  $3.00 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and 
Various  Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  Billings.  Illustrated  by 
nearly  200  engravings.    8vo  I3.00 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion: 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and 
Chemicals  used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses;  Mor- 
dants and  How  Made;  with  the  best  American,  English, 
French  and  German  processes  for  Bleaching  and  Dyeing 
Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt,  Dress  Goods,  Mixed 
and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur,  Wool,  and 
Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins,  Furs, 
Leather,  etc.,  etc.,  by  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions 
in  the  Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water- 
Proofing  of  Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water. 
Manufacture  of  Aniline  and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmoniz- 
ing Colors,  etc.,  etc.;  embracing  in  all  over  800  Receipts  for 
Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by  170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw 
Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  Bird,  Practical  Dyer, 
Author  of  "The  Dyers'  Hand-Book. "    8vo  $4.00 

BLINN. — A   Practical   Workshop   Companion   for  Tin, 
Sheet-Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers: 

Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns 


4     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


used  by  Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical 
Geometry;  Mensuration  of  Surface  and  Solids;  Tables  of  the 
Weights  of  Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc.;  Tables  of  Areas  and 
Circumferences  of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Ce- 
ments, Compositions,  etc.,  etc.  By  Leroy  J.  Blinn,  Master 
Mechanic.  With  One  Hundred  and  Seventy  Illustrations. 
i2mo..  $2.50 

BOOTH.— Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in 
general,  their  Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing;  Veneering  of 
Marble;  Mosaics;  Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble, 
Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts,  Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated 
from  the  French  by  M.  L.  Booth.  With  an  Appendix  con- 
cerning American  Marbles.    i2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 
Fats  and  Oils: 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and 
Chemical  Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and 
Refining  them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them;  as  well 
as  the  Manufacture  of  Artificial  Butter  and  Lubricants,  etc., 
with  lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extraction, 
Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing  and  Bleaching  of  Fats 
and  Oils.  By  William  T.  Brannt,  Editor  of  the  "Techno- 
Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Second  Edition,  Revised  and 
in  great  part  Rewritten.  Illustrated  by  302  Engravings. 
In  Two  Volumes.    1304  pp.    8vo  $10.00 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Distillation  and  Rec- 
tification of  Alcohol: 

Comprising  Raw  Materials;  Production  of  Malt,  Preparation 
of  Mashes  and  of  Yeast;  Fermentation;  Distillation  and 
Rectification  and  Purification  of  Alcohol;  Preparation  of 
Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  Fruit  Essences, 
Vinegar,  etc.;  Examination  of  Materials  for  the  Preparation 
of  Malt  as  well  as  of  the  Malt  itself;  Examination  of  Mashes 
before  and  after  Fermentation;  Alcoholometry,  with  Numer- 
ous Comprehensive  Tables;  and  an  Appendix  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Compressed  Yeast  and  the  Examination  of  Alcohol 
and  Alcoholic  Liquors  for  Fusel  Oil  and  other  Impurities. 
By  William  T.  Brannt,  Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical 
Receipt  Book."  Second  Edition.  Entirely  Rewritten.  Il- 
lustrated by  105  engravings.  460  pages.  8vo.  (Dec, 
1903)  $10.00 

BRANNT.— India  Rubber,  Gutta-Percha  and  Balata: 

Occurrence,  Geographical  Distribution,  and  Cultivation,  Ob- 
taining and  Preparing  the  Raw  Materials,  Modes  of  Working 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  5 


and  Utilizing  them,  including  Washing,  Maceration,  Mixing, 
Vulcanizing,  Rubber  and  Gutta-Percha  Compounds,  Utiliza- 
tion of  Waste,  etc.  By  William  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated. 
i2mo.    A  new  edition  in  preparation. 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Vinegar  and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit- Wines: 

Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evap- 
oration; Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades, 
Catchups,  Pickles,  Mustards,  etc.  Edited  from  various 
sources.  By  William  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated  by  79  En- 
gravings,   479    pp.    8vo  (Scarce) 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys:  A  Practical  Guide: 

For  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amalgams,  and 
Solders,  used  by  Metal  Workers:  together  with  their  Chem- 
ical and  Physical  Properties  and  their  Application  in  the  Arts 
and  the  Industries;  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Coloring  of 
Alloys  and  the  Recovery  of  Waste  Metals.  By  William 
T.  Brannt.  45  Engravings.  Third,  Revised,  and  Enlarged 
Edition.    570  pages.     8vo  Net,  $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's  Handy-Book  of  Receipts 
and  Processes: 

Being  a  Collection  of  Chemical  Formulas  and  Practical 
Manipulations  for  the  working  of  all  Metals;  including  the 
Decoration  and  Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  there- 
from, as  well  as  their  Preservation.  Edited  from  various 
sources.   By  William  T.  Brannt.    Illustrated.   i2mo.  $2.50 

BRANNT.— Petroleum : 

Its  History,  Origin,  Occurrence,  Production,  Physical  and 
Chemical  Constitution,  Technology,  Examination  and  Uses; 
Together  with  the  Occurrence  and  Uses  of  Natural  Gas. 
Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Prof.  Hans  Hoefer  and  Dr. 
Alexander  Veith  by  Wm.  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated  by  3 
Plates  and  284  Engravings.   743  pp.   8vo  $12.50 

BRANNT.— The    Practical    Dry    Cleaner,    Scourer  and 
Garment  Dyer: 

Comprising  Dry,  Chemical,  or  French  Cleaning;  Purifica- 
tion of  Benzine;  Removal  of  Stains,  or  Spotting;  Wet  Clean- 
ing; Finishing  Cleaned  Fabrics;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Furs, 
Skin  Rugs  and  Mats;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Feathers;  Clean- 
ing and  Renovating  Felt,  Straw  and  Panama  Hats;  Bleach- 
ing and  Dyeing  Straw  and  Straw  Hats;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing 
Gloves;  Garment  Dyeing;  Stripping,  Analysis  of  Textile 
Fabrics.  Edited  by  William  T.  Brannt,  Editor  of  "The 
Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."    Fourth  Edition,  Revised 


6       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


and  Enlarged.    Illustrated  by  Forty-One  Engravings.  12 

mo-    371  PP  ^^2.50 

CONTENTS:  I.  Dry  Chemical  or  French  Cleaning.  II.  Removal  of 
Stains,  or  Spotting.  III.  Wet  Washing.  IV.  Finishing  Cleaned  Fabrics. 
V.  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Furs,  Skin  Rugs  and  Mats.  VI.  Cleaning  and 
Dyeing  Feathers.  VII.  Cleaning  and  Renovating  Felt,  Straw  and  Panama 
Hats;  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Straw  and  Straw  Hats.  VIII.  Cleaning  and 
Dyeing  Gloves.  IX.  Garment  Dyeing.  X.  Stripping  Colors  from  Gar- 
ments and  Fabrics.    XI.  Analysis  of  Textile  Fabrics.  Index. 

BRANNT.— The  Soap  Maker's  Hand-Book  of  Materials, 

Processes  and  Receipts  for  every  description  of  Soap  includ- 
ing Fats,  Fat  Oils  and  Fatty  Acids;  Examination  of  Fats  and 
Oils;  Alkalies;  Testing  Soda  and  Potash;  Machines  and 
Utensils;  Hard  Soaps;  Soft  Soaps;  Textile  Soaps;  Washing 
Powders  and  Allied  Products;  Toilet  Soaps,  Medicated 
Soaps,  and  Soap  Specialties;  Essential  Oils  and  other  Perfum- 
ing Materials;  Testing  Soaps.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  Ger- 
man of  Dr.  C.  Deite,  A.  Engelhardt,  F.  Wiltner,  and 
numerous  other  Experts.  With  Additions  by  William  T. 
Brannt,  Editor  of  ^'The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book." 
Illustrated  by  Fifty-four  Engravings.  Second  edition.  Re- 
vised and  in  great  part  Re- Written.    535  pp.    8vo  $6.00 

BRANNT.— Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Seal- 
ing Waxes: 

Their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is 
added  the  Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including  the 
Preparation  of  Putties  and  of  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone 
Horn,  and  Leather.  By  William  T.  Brannt.  Illustrated 
by  39  Engravings,  338  pages.    i2mo  $3.00 

BRANNT- WAHL.— The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  covering  the  latest, 
most  important,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical 
Technology,  and  their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and 
the  Industries.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs. 
Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mierzinski,  Jacobsen,  Koller  and 
HeinzerHng,  with  additions  by  Wm.  T.  Brannt  and  Wm.  H. 
Wahl,  Ph.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  i2mo.  495 
pages  $2.00 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Move- 
ments : 

Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics, 
Hydraulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam  Engines,  Mill 
and  other  Gearing,  Presses,  Horology,  and  Miscellaneous 
Machinery;  and  including  many  movements  never  before 
published,  and  several  of  which  have  only  recently  come  into 
use.    By  Henry  T.  Brown  $1.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  7 


BULLOCK.— The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Build- 
ing: 

For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machin- 
ists, Engineers  and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  John  Bullock, 
author  of  "The  American  Cottage  Builder."  Illustrated 
by  250  Engravings.    8vo  $2.50 

BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and 
Engineer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools, 
Abrasive  Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  En- 
graving, Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  Apparatus,  Materials 
and  Processes  for  Grinding  and  Polishing,  etc.  By  Oliver 
Byrne.    Illustrated  by  185  wood  engravings.    8vo  $4.00 

BYRNE.— Pocket- Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 

Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out 
Railroad  Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings ;^  the 
Staking  out  of  work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings; 
Embankments;  Earthwork,  etc.  By  Oliver  Byrne.  i8mo., 
full  bound,  pocketbook  form  $i-50 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Metal-Worker's  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all 
Metals  and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and 
Tempering;  Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding; 
Works  in  Sheet  Metals;  the  Process  Dependent  on  the  Duc- 
tility of  the  Metals;  Soldering;  etc.  By  John  Percy.  The 
Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and  Improvements 
in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating 
every  Branch  of  the  Subject.    8vo  $3. 50 

CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of 
Furniture.  Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beau- 
tifully Engraved  Plates.    Oblong,  8vo  $1.50 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By 
James  Callingham.  To  which  are  added  Numerous  Alpha- 
bets and  the  Art  of  Letter  Painting  Made  Easy.    By  James 


C.  Badenoch.    258  pages.    i2mo  $1.50 

CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey: 

By  Dr.  Wm.  Elder.    With  a  portrait.    8vo.,  cloth  75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey: 

Manual    of    Social    Science.     Condensed   from  Carey's 

"Principles  of  Social  Science."    By  Kate  McKean     i  vol. 

i2mo  ^2.00 


8     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $10.00 

Past,  Present  and  Future.    8vo  $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.    3  volumes,  8  vo  $10.00 

The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;    Why  it  Exists, 

and  How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).    8vo  $2.00 

The  Unity  of  Law:  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Phys- 
ical, Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).    8vo  $2.50 

GOOLEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery: 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet 
Articles,  with  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By 
Arnold  CooLEY.    i2mo  $1.00 

COURTNEY.— The  Boiler  Maker's  Assistant  in  Drawing, 
Templating,  and  Calculating  Boiler  Work  and  Tank 
Work,  etc. 

Revised  by  D.  K.  Clark.    102  ills.    Fifth  edition  8 

COURTNEY.— The  Boiler  Maker's  Ready  Reckoner: 
With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating.  Re- 
vised by  D.  K.  Clark,  C.  E.    37  illustrations.    Fifth  edi- 
tion $1.60 

CRISTIANL— A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 

With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.  By  R.  S. 
Cristiani,  Chemist.  Author  of  "Perfumery  and  Kindred 
Arts."  Illustrated  by  176  Engravings.  581  pages, 
8vo  $15.00 

CROSS.— The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner: 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Differ- 
ent Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hith- 
erto been  practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from 
which  we  make  all  our  Changes.  By  Richard  Cross.  122 
pp.    i2mo  75 

DAVIDSON.— A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting, 
Graining,  Marbling,  and  Sign- Writing: 
Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Paint- 
ing in  Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and 
Practice  of  Sign- Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art, 
a  Course  of  Elementary  Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers, 
etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful  Receipts.  With  nine  colored 
illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles,  and  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings.   By  Ellis  A.  Davidson.    i2mo  $2.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Earthy  and  Other  Minerals  and 
Mining: 

By  D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated 
by  76  Engravings.    i2mo  $5.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  9 


DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and 
Mining: 

By|D.  C.  Davies,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of 
Mines,  Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engrav- 
ings of  Geological  Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Ma- 
chinery, drawn  from  the  practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  much  Enlarged  by 
his  son,  E.  Henry  Davies.    i2mo.    524  pages  $5.00 

DAVIS. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Brick,  Tiles  and  Terra-Cotta: 

Including  Stiff  Clay,  Dry  Clay,  Hand  Made,  Pressed  or 
Front,  and  Roadway  Paving  Brick,  Enamelled  Brick,  with 
Glazes  and  Colors,  Fire  Brick  and  Blocks,  Silica  Brick,  Carbon 
Brick,  Glass  5Pots,  Retorts,  Architectural  Terra-Cotta,  Sewer 
Pipe,  Drain  Tile,  Glazed  and  Unglazed  Roofing  Tile,  Art  Tile, 
Mosaics,  and  Imitation  of  Intrarsia  or  Inlaid  Surfaces.  Com- 
prising every  product  of  Clay  employed  in  Architecture,  En- 
gineering, and  the  Blast  Furnace.  With  a  Detailed  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Different  Clays  employed,  the  Most  Modern  Ma- 
chinery, Tools,  and  Kilns  used,  and  the  Processes  for  Handling 
Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and  Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape, 
Drying,  Setting,  and  Burning.  By  Charles  Thomas  Davis. 
Third  Edition.  Revised  and  in  great  part  rewritten.  Il- 
lustrated by  261  engravings.    662  pages  (Scarce.) 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrica- 
tion, Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Pap^r,  Includ- 
ing the  Different  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  De- 
termining their  Values,  the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical 
Details  connected  with  an  intelligent  and  a  profitable  prose- 
cution of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to  the  best  American 
Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Paper,  complete 
Lists  of  iPaper-Making  Materials,  List  of  Ameiican  Machines, 
Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials,  and 
in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  Charles  T. 
Davis.  Illustrated  by  156  Engravings.  608  pages.  8vo..  .$6.00 

DAWIDOWSKY-BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine, 
Gelatine  Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements, 
Pastes,  Mucilages,  etc.: 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  Dawidowsky,  Tech- 
nical Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive 
additions,  including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  Ameri- 
can Processes,  by  William  T.  Brannt.  2d  revised  edition, 
350  pages.    (1905)    Price  $3-00, 


10    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


DEITE.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Perfumery : 

Comprising  directions  for  making  all  kinds  of  Perfumes, 
Sachet  Powders,  Fumigating  Materials,  Dentifrices,  Cos- 
metics, etc.,  with  a  full  account  of  the  Volatile  Oils,  Balsams,^ 
Resins,  and  other  Natural  and  Artificial  Perfume-substances, 
including  the  Manufacture  of  Fruit  Ethers,  and  tests  of  their 
purity.  By  Dr.  C.  Deite,  assisted  by  L.  Borchert,  F. 
EiCHBAUM,  E.  KuGLER,  H.  ToEFFNER,  and  Other  experts. 
From  the  German,  by  Wm.  T.  Brannt.  28  Engravings. 
358  pages.    8vo  $3.00 

DE  KONINCK-DIETZ.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Assaying: 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  ta 
Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce. 
By  L.  L.  DeKoninck,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  Dietz,  Engineer.  Ed- 
ited with  Notes,  by  Robert  Mallet,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M. 
I.  C.  E.,  efc.  American  Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an 
Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.    i2mo  $1.00 

DIETERICHS.— A    Treatise    on    Friction,  Lubrication, 
Oils  and  Fats: 

The  Manufacture  of  Lubricating  Oils,  Paint  Oils,  and  of 
Grease,  and  the  Testing  of  Oils.  By  E.  F.  Dieterichs, 
Member  of  the  Franklin  Institute;  Member  National  Associa- 
tion of  Stationary  Engineers;  Inventor  of  Dietrichs'  Valve- 
Oleum  Lubricating  Oils.  i2mo.  (1906.)  A  practical  book 
by  a  practical  man  $1.25 

DUNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of 
common  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor,  without  the  aid 
of  a  teacher.  By  Andrew  Duncan.  Revised.  72  Engrav- 
ings.   214  pp.    i2mo  $1.50- 

DUPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the   Manufacture  and  Dis- 
tillation  of  Alcoholic  Liquors: 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to 
Alcohol  from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,^ 
Sorghum,  Asphodel,  Fruits,  etc.;  with  the  Distillation  and 
Rectification  of  Brandy,  Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe, 
etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aromatic  Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or 
Essences,  Sugars.  Syrups,  Aromatic  Tinctures,  Liqueurs, 
Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the  Ageing  of  Brandy 
and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious  Directions 
and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors,  etc.,. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  ii 


etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  Du- 
PLAis.  By  M.  McKennie,  M.  D.  Illustrated.  743  pp. 
8vo  $15-00 

EDWARDS.— A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam- Engine: 

For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Prac- 
tical Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  Emory  Edwards,  Me- 
chanical Engineer.  Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings, 
including  examples  of  the  most  modern  Engines.  Third 
edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with  much  additional  matter. 
i2mo.    414  pages  $i-50 

EDWARDS.— American    Marine    Engineer,  Theoretical 
and  Practical: 

With  Examples  of  the  latest  and  most  approved  American 
Practice.    By   Emory   Edwards.    85    Illustrations.  i2mo. 

$1.50 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines: 

Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.  By  Emory 
Edwards.    Illustrated.    i2mo  $i-5o 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers, 
and  Screw  Propellers: 

Their  Design  and  Construction.    146  pp.    4to  $2.00 

EDWARDS. — 900  Examination  Questions  and  Answers: 

For  Engineers  and  Firemen  (Land  and  Marine)  who  desire 
to  obtain  a  United  States  Government  or  State  License. 
Pocket-book  form,  gilt  edge  I1.50 

EDWARDS.— The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latest  and 
most  approved  American  practice  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  Steam  Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of 
Engineers,  machinists,  boiler-makers,  and  engineering  stu- 
dents. By  Emory  Edwards.  Fully  illustrated.  419  pages. 
i2mo  $1.50 

EDWARDS.— The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide: 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American 
Stationary,  Portable,  and  Steam  Fire-Engines,  Steam  Pumps, 
Boilers,  Injectors,  Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings, 
Safety  Valves  and  Steam  Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers, 
Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By  Emory  Edwards.  Illus- 
strated  by  119  engravings.    420  pages.    i2mo  $2.00 

ELDER. — Conversations   on   the  Principal   Subjects  of 
Political  Economy: 

By  Dr.  William  Elder.    8  vo  $1.50 


12    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


ELDER.— Questions  of  the  Day: 

Economic  and  Social.  By  Dr.  William  Elder.  8vo.  $3.00 
ERNI  AND  BROWN.— Mineralogy  Simplified: 

Easy  Methods  of  Identifying  Minerals,  including  Ores,  by 
Means  of  the  Blow-pipe,  by  Flame  Reactions,  by  Humid 
Chemical  Analysis,  and  by  Physical  Tests.  By  Henri 
Erni,  a.  M.,  M.  D.  Fourth  Edition,  revised,  re-arranged 
and  with  the  addition  of  entirely  new  matter,  including  Tables 
for  the  Determination  of  Minerals  by  Chemicals  and  Pyrog- 
nostic  Characters,  and  by  Physical  Characters.  By  Amos 
P.  Brown,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D.  464  pp.  Illustrated  by  123  En- 
gravings, pocket-book  form,  full  flexible  morocco,  gilt  edges. 

$2.50 

FAIRBAIRN. — The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machi- 
nery of  Transmission: 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pul- 
leys, Strength  and  Proportion  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts, 
and  Engaging  and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  Sir  William 
Fairbairn,  Bart.,  C.  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150 
wood-cuts.     In   one   volume.    i2mo  $2.00 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America: 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable 
Statistics  as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives, 
Cars,  etc.    By  Howard  Fleming.    Illustrated.    8vo..  .$1.00 

FLEMMING.— Practical  Tanning: 

A  Handbook  of  Modern  Processes,  Receipts,  and  Sugges- 
tions for  the  Treatment  of  Hides,  Skins,  and  Pelts  of  Every 
Description.  By  Lewis  A.  Flemming,  American  Tanner. 
630  pp.    8vo.    1910  $6.00 

FORSYTH.— Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,  Mural,  and 
other  Monuments: 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  James  Forsyth,  With  an  In- 
troduction by  Charles  Boutell,  M.  A.    4to.    Cloth.  .$3.00 

GARDNER.— Everybody's  Paint  Book: 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  Paint- 
ing.   38  Illustrations.    i2mo.    183  pp  |i.oo 

GARDNER.— The  Painter's  Encyclopaedia: 

Containing  Definitions  of  all  Important  Words  in  the  Art  of 
Plain  and  Artistic  Painting,  with  Details  of  Practice  in  Coach, 
Carriage,  Railway  Car,  House,  Sign,  and  Ornamental  Paint- 
ing, including  Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Varnishing, 
Polishing,  Lettering,  Stenciling,  Gilding,  Bronzing,  etc.  By 
Franklin  B.  Gardner.    158  illustrations.    i2mo.    427  pp. 

$2.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  13 


GEE.— The  Goldsmith's  Handbook: 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of 
Gold,  including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Color- 
ing, Collecting,  and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation, 
Recovery  of  Waste;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of 
Gold;  with  a  New  System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys;  Solders,  En- 
amels; and  other  Useful  Rules  and  Recipes.  By  George  E. 
Gee.    i2mo  I1.25 

GEE. — The  Jeweler's  Assistant  in  the  Art  of  Working  in 
Gold: 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Masters  and  Workmen.  i2mo.  $3.00 
GEE.— The  Silversmith's  Handbook: 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of 
Silver,  including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting 
the  Metal;  its  Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys; 
Methods  of  Manipulation;  Prevention  of  Waste;  Instructions 
for  Improving  and  Finishing  the  Surface  of  the  Work;  together 
with  other  Useful  Information  and  Memoranda.  By  George 
E.  Gee.    Illustrated.    i2mo  $1.25 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.  Twenty-three  plates.  Ob- 
long $1.00 

GRANT.— A  Handbook  on  the  Teeth  of  Gears: 

Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction.  By 
George  B.  Grant.  Illustrated.  Third  Edition,  enlarged. 
8vo  $1.00 

GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men: 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechan- 
ics, and  Civil  Engineers.  By  Olinthus  Gregory.  8vo., 
plates  $3.00 

GRISWOLD.— Railroad    Engineer's   Pocket  Companion 
for  the  Field: 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and 
Angles,  Tangential  Distances  and  Angles  and  all  Necessary 
Tables  for  Engineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Prelim- 
inary Survey  to  the  Construction  of  Railroads,  intended 
Expressly  for  the  Young  Engineer,  together  with  Numerous 
Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By  W.  Griswold.  i2mo. 
Pocketbook  form  $1.50 

GRUNER.— Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  Gruner,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines 
of  France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole 
des  Mines.  Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an 
Appendix,  by  L.  D.  B.  Gordon,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S:  8vo. 

$2.50 


14    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer 
and  Mechanic: 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board 
Measure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure;  Wages  and 
Rent,  by  Week  or  Month;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and 
Cisterns;  Land  Measure,  Interest  Tables  with  Directions 
for  finding  the  Interest  on  any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per 
cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables.  32mo.,  boards.  186 
pages  25 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool, 
Cotton  and  Linen: 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery 
and  Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and 
Practice.  By  E.  C.  Haserick.  Illustrated  hy  323  Dyed 
Patterns  of  the  Yarns  or  Fabrics.    8vo  $4-50 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical 
Hatter.    Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo. 

$1.00 

HAUPT. — A  Manual  of  Engineering  Specifications  and 
Contracts : 

By  Lewis   M.   Haupt,   C.  E.    Illustrated  with  numerous 


maps.    328   pp.    8vo  $2.00 

HAUPT.— Street  Railway  Motors: 

With  Descriptions  and  Cost  of  Plants  and  Operation  of  the 
Various  Systems  now  in  Use.    i2mo  $1.50 

HAUPT.— The  Topographer,  His  Instruments  and  Meth- 
ods: 

By  Lewis  M.  Haupt,  A.  M.,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  numer- 
ous plates,  maps  and  engravings.    247  pp.    8vo  $2.00 

HULME. — Worked    Examination    Questions    in  Plane 
Geometrical  Drawing: 


For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst;  the  In- 
dian Civil  Engineering  College,  Cooper's  Hill;  Indian  Public 
Works  and  Telegraph  Department;  Royal  Marine  Light  In- 
fantry; the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc. 
By  F.  Edward  Hulme,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marl- 
borough College.  Illustrated  by  300  examples.  Small 
quarto  $1.00 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial 
and  Financial  Questions: 

By  Hon.  William  D.  Kelley,  M.  C.  544  pages.   8vo.  $2.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  15 


KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book: 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking 
Apart,  Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the 
English  Lever  and  other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American 
Watches.  By  F.  Kelmo,  Practical  Watchmaker.  With 
Illustrations.    i2mo  $1.25 

KICK.— Flour  Manufacture: 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  Frederick 
Kick,  Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical 
Technology  in  the  Imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Prague.  Translated  from  the  second  enlarged  and  revised 
edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H.  P.  Powles,  Assoc.  Memb, 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated  with  28  Plates, 
and  167  Wood-cuts.    367  pages.    8vo  $7.50 

KINGZETT.— The  History,  Products,  and  Processes  of 
the  Alkali  Trade: 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  Charles 
Thomas  Kingzett,  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustra- 
tions.   8vo  $2.00 

KIRK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundry  Irons: 

Comprising  Pig  Iron,  and  Fracture  Grading  of  Pig  and  Scrap 
Irons;  Scrap  Irons;  Mixing  Irons;  Elements  and  Metalloids; 
Grading  Iron  by  Analysis;  Chemical  Standards  for  Iron 
Castings;  Testing  Cast  Iron;  Semi-Steel;  Malleable  Iron; 
Etc.,  Etc.  By  Edward  Kirk,  Practical  Moulder  and  Melter, 
Consulting  Expert  in  Melting.  Illustrated.  294  pages. 
8vo.    191 1   .$3.00 

KIRK.— The  Cupola  Furnace: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of 
Foundry  Cupolas.  By  Edward  Kirk,  Practical  Moulder  and 
Melter,  Consulting  Expert  in  Melting.  Illustrated  by  106 
Engravings.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  482 
pages.    8vo.    1910  $3.50 

KOENIG.— Chemistry  Simplified: 

A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Non-Metals,  Based  upon  the 
Natural  Evolution  of  Chemistry.  Designed  Primarily  for 
Engineers.  By  George  Augustus  Koenig,  Ph.  D.,  A.  M., 
E.  M.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Michigan  College  of  Mines, 
Houghton.  Illustrated  by  103  Original  Drawings.  449  pp. 
i2mo.    (1906)  $2.25 

LANGBEIN. — A  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Electro-Deposi- 
tion of  Metals: 

Comprising  Electro-Plating  and  Galvanoplastic  Operations, 
The  Deposition  of  Metals  by  the  Contact  and  Immersion 


16    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Processes,  the  Coloring  of  Metals,  the  Methods  of  Grinding 
and  Polishing,  as  well  as  the  Description  of  the  Voltaic  Cells,- 
Dynamo-Electric  Machines,  Thermopiles,  and  of  the  Materi- 
als and  Processes  Used  in  Every  Department  of  the  Art. 
Translated  from  the  latest  German  Edition  of  Dr.  George 
Langbein,  Proprietor  of  a  Manufactory  for  Chemical  Pro- 
ducts, Machines,  Apparatus  and  Utensils  for  Electro-Platers, 
and  of  an  Electro-Plating  Establishment  in  Leipzig.  With 
Additions  by  William  T.  Brannt,  Editor  of  "The  Techno- 
Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  Illustrated  by  163  Engravings.  8vo.  725  pages. 
1913  $5.00- 

LARKIN.— The    Practical    Brass    and    Iron  Founder's 
Guide: 

A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals 
and  their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improve- 
ments in  the  Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer 
Process,  etc.,  etc.  By  James  Larkin,  late  Conductor  of  the 
Brass  Foundry  Department  in  Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn 
Works,  Philadelphia.  New  edition,  revised,  with  extensive 
additions.    414  pages.    i2mo  $2.50- 

LEHNER.— The  Manufacture  of  Ink: 

Comprising  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  Preparation  of 
Writing,  Copying  and  Hektograph  Inks,  Safety  Inks,  Ink 
Extracts  and  Powders,  etc.  Translated  from  the  German 
of  SiGMUND  Lehner,  with  additions  by  William  T.  Brannt. 
Illustrated.    i2mo  |2.oo- 

LERCUX.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns: 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calcula- 
tions applied  to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring 
Wools;  the  English  and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Draw- 
ing, and  Spinning  Worsteds,  and  Manufacturing  Carded 
Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of  Charles  Leroux,. 
Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a  Spinning-Mill, 
by  Horatio  Paine,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.    Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.    8vo..  .  .$3.00- 

LESLIE.— Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss 
Leslie.  Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the 
additions  of  New  Receipts.    i2mo  |i.oo 

LE  VAN.— The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator: 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development;  including  the 
Most  Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  17 


with  the  Indicator,  its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Applica- 
tion. By  William  Barnet  Le  Van.  Illustrated  by  205 
Engravings,  chiefly  of  Indicator-Cards.    469  pp.    8vo.  $2.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's  Guide: 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters, 
for  the  Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for 
the  Ores  of  all  the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins 
and  alloys,  and  of  Coal,  etc.  By  Oscar  M.  Lieber.  Re- 
vised.   283  pp.    i2mo  $1.50 

Lockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms: 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing 
those  Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry, 
Fitting,  Turning,  Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  com- 
prising upwards  of  Six  Thousand  Definitions,  Edited  by  a 
Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author  of  "Pattern  Making."  417 
pp.    i2mo  I3.75 

LUKIN.— The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses: 

Or  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Turning  Wood  and  Metal.  In- 
cluding a  Description  of  the  Most  Modern  Appliances  for  the 
Ornamentation  of  Plane  and  Curved  Surfaces,  an  Entirely 
Novel  Form  of  Lathe  for  Eccentric  and  Rose-Engine  Turn- 
ing; A  Lathe  and  Planing  Machine  Combined;  and  Other 
Valuable  Matter  Relating  to  the  Art.  Illustrated  by  462 
engravings.    Seventh  Edition.    315  pages.    8vo  $4.25 

MAUCHLINE.— The  Mine  Foreman's  Hand-Book: 

Of  Practical  and  Theoretical  Information  on  the  Opening, 
Ventilating  ,and  Working  of  Collieries.  Questions  and  An- 
swers on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Coal  Mining.  Designed 
to  Assist  Students  and  Others  iu  Passing  Examinations  for 
Mine  Foremanships.  By  Robert  Mauchline.  3d  Edition. 
Thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  F.  Ernest  Brackett. 
134  Engravings.    8vo.    378  pages.    (1905.)  $3.75 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Formulae  and 
Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers: 

By  Guilford  L.  Molesworth,  Member  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon 
Railway.    Full-bound  in  Pocketbook  form  $1.00 

MOORE. — The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete 
Mechanic: 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations, 
Receipts,  Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms, 
Legal  Items,  etc.,  in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household 
to  the  Manufactory.  By  R.  Moore.  Illustrated  by  500 
Engravings.    i2mo  $2.50 


i8    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing: 

By  James  Napier,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised 
Edicion.  _  Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the 
Science,  including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A. 
A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on 
Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Ex- 
position, Paris,   1867.    Illustrated.    8vo.    422  pages.  .$2.00 

NICHOLLS.— The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler- Maker 
and  Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers 
of  Labor,  Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers,  Iron,  Copper, 
and  Tinsmiths,  Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam- 
using  Public,  and  for  the  Use  of  Science  Schools  and  classes 
By  Samuel  Nicholls.    Illustrated  by  sixteen  plates.  i2mo. 

$2.50 

NYSTROM.— On  Technological  Education  and  the  Con- 
struction of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers: 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  John  W.  Nystrom, 
late  Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
vised, with  additional  matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  En- 
gravings.   1 2  mo  $1.00 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Pro- 
cesses in  use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics; 
with  Practical  Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By 
Charles  O'Neill,  Analytical  Chemist.  To  which  is  added 
an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and  their  application  to  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing, 
as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  8vo. 
491  pages  $2.00 

ORTON.— Underground  Treasures: 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  De- 
termination of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United 
States.  By  James  Orton,  A.  M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  Vassar  College,  N.  Y.;  author  of  the  "Andes  and 
the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  An  Appendix  on 
Ore  Deposits  and  Testing   Minerals.     (1901-)  Illustrated. 

$1.50 

OSBORN.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and 
Mining: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Position;  Local 
Occurrence  and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals,  their 
Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay;  together  with 
Various  Systems  of  Excavating  and  Timbering,   Brick  and 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  19 


Masonry  Work,  during  Driving,  Lining,  Bracing  and  other 
Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  Osborn,  LL.  D.,  Author  of 
"The  Prospector's  Field-Book  and  Guide."  171  Engravings. 
Second  Edition,  Revised.    8vo  $4.50 

OSBORN.— The  Prospector's  Field  Book  and  Guide: 

In  the  Search  For  and  the  Easy  Determination  of  Ores  and 
Other  Useful  Minerals.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  Osborn,  LL.  D. 
Illustrated  by  66  Engravings.  Eighth  Edition.  Revised 
and  Enlarged.    401   pages.    i2mo.    (1910.)  $i-50 

OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide: 

A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry- 
sand,  Loam,  and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames, 
Mill-gear,  Hollow  Ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and 
Statues;  Description  of  Moulds  for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and 
other  Metals;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur,  Wax,  etc.;  the  Con- 
struction of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and  Founding  of 
Metals;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature,  etc., 
etc.  By  Frederick  Overman,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental 
Moulding,  Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A. 
A.  Fesquet,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44 
engravings.     i2mo  $2.00 

PAINTEjR,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION: 

Comprising  the  Manufacture  and  Test  of  Pigments,  the  Arts 
of  Painting,  Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Sign-writing, 
Varnishing,  Glass-staining,  and  Gilding  on  Glass;  together 
with  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing,  and  the  Principles  of 
the  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  Twenty-seventh 
Edition.  Revised,  Enlarged,  and  in  great  part  Rewritten. 
By  William  T.  Brannt,    Editor  of  "Varnishes,  Lacquers, 


Printing  Inks  and  Sealing  Waxes."  Illustrated.  395  pp. 
i2mo  $1.50 

PERCY.— The  Manufacturing  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron: 

By  John  Percy,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.    Paper  25 

POSSELT.— Cotton  Manufacturing: 

Part  I.  Dealing  with  the  Fibre,  Ginning,  Mixing,  Picking, 
Scutching  and  Carding.  By  E.  A.  Posselt.  104  Illustra- 
tions, 190  pp  $3.00 


Part  11.    Combing,  Drawing,  Roller  Covering  and  Fly  Frame, 

I3.00 

POSSELT.— The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Ex- 
plained : 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E. 
A.  Posselt.  With  230  Illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams. 
127  pp.    4to  $3.00 


20    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


POSSELT. — Recent  Improvements  in  Textile  Machinery 
Relating  to  Weaving: 

Giving  the  Most  Modern  Points  on  the  Construction  of  fall 
Kinds  of  Looms,  Warpers,  Beamers,  Slashers,  Winders, 
Spoolers,  Reeds,  Temples,  Shuttles,  Bobbins,  Heddles,  Heddle 
Frames,  Pickers,  Jacquards,  Card  Stampers,  Etc.,  Etc.  By 
E.  A.  PossELT.  4to.  Part  I,  600  ills.;  Part  II,  600  ills. 
Each  part  $3.00 

POSSELT. — Recent  Improvements  in  Textile  Machinery, 
Part  HI: 

Processes  Required  for  Converting  Wool,  Cotton,  Silk,  from 
Fibre  to  Finished  Fabric,  Covering  both  Woven  and  Knit 
Goods;  Construction  of  the  most  Modern  Improvements  in 
Preparatory  Machinery,  Carding,  Combing,  Drawing,  and 
Spinning  Machinery,  Winding,  Warping,  Slashing  Machinery, 
Looms,  Machinery  for  Knit  Goods,  Dye  Stuffs,  Chemicals, 
Soaps,  Latest  Improved  Accessories  Relating  to  Construc- 
tion and  Equipment  of  Modern  Textile  Manufacturing  Plants 
By  E.  A.  PossELT.    Completely  Illustrated.    4to  $7.50 

POSSELT.— Technology  of  Textile  Design: 

The  Most  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Appli- 
cation of  Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics  and  the  Analysis  of 
Cloth.    By  E.  A.  Posselt.    1,500  Illustrations.    4to.  .$5.00 

POSSELT.— Textile  Calculations: 

A  Guide  to  Calculations  Relating  to  the  Manufacture  of  all 
Kinds  of  Yarns  and  Fabrics,  the  Analysis  of  Cloth,  Speed, 
Power  and  Belt  Calculations.  By  E.  A.  Posselt.  Illus- 
trated.   4to  $2.00 

REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  Regnault.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T. 
Forrest  Betton,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  James 
C.  Booth,  Melter  and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  William  L. 
Faber,  Metallurgist  and  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by 
nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Comprising  nearly  1,500  pages. 
In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  $5-00 

RICH.— Artistic  Horse-Shoeing: 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods 
of  Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure 
Different  Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  the  Correction  of  Faulty 
Action  in  Trotters.  By  George  E.  Rich.  362  Illustrations. 
217  pages.    i2mo  $2.00 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Blacksmithing : 

A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by 
Skilled  Workmen  to  the  columns  of  "The  Blacksmith  and 
Wheelwright,"  and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of 
Blacksmithing,  from  the  Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the 
most  Complex  Forgings.    Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  21 


Richardson. 

Vol.  I.    210  Illustrations.    224  pages.    i2mo  $1.00 

Vol.  II.    230  Illustrations.    262  pages.    i2mo  $1.00 

Vol.  III.    390  Illustrations.    307  pages.    l2mo  $1.00 

Vol.  IV.    226  Illustrations.    276  pages.    i2mo  $1.00 


RICHARDSON.— Practical  Carriage  Building: 

Comprising  Numerous  Short  Practical  Articles  upon  Carriage 
and  Wagon  Woodwork;  Plans  for  Factories;  Shop  and  Bench 
Tools;  Convenient  Appliances  for  Repair  Work;  Methods  of 
Working;  Peculiarities  of  Bent  Timber;  Construction  of 
Carriage  Parts;  Repairing  Wheels;  Forms  of  Tenons  and  Mor- 
tises; Together  with  a  Variety  of  Useful  Hints  and  Sugges- 
tions to  Woodworkers.    Compiled  by  M.  T.  Richardson. 

Vol.  I.    228  Illustrations.    222  pages  $1.00 

Vol.  II.    283  Illustrations.    280  pages  $1.00 

RICHARDSON.— The   Practical  Horseshoer: 

Being  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Horseshoeing  in  all  its 
Branches  which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  col- 
umns of  "The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.  Com- 
piled and  edited  by  M.  T.  Richardson.    174  Illustrations, 

1 1. 00 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting: 

Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors, 
the  Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials;  the  best  Formulae  and 
the  Newest  Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description 
of  Pigment,  and  the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for 
its  use;  Dryers;  the  Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of 
Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM.  Riffault,  Vergnaud,  and 
Toussant.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M.  F.  Malpeyre.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  A.  A.  Fesquet.    Illustrated  by 

Eighty  Engravings.    659  pp.    8vo  $5.00 

ROPER. — Catechism   for   Steam   Engineers   and  Elec- 
tricians : 

Including  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam  En- 
gines, Steam  Boilers  and  Electric  Plants.  By  Stephen 
Roper.  Twenty-first  edition,  rewritten  and  greatly  enlarged 
by  E.  R.  Keller  and  C.  W.  Pike.    365  pages.  Illustrations. 

i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  $2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's  Handy  Book: 

Containing  Facts,  Formulae,  Tables  and  Questions  on  Power, 
its  Generation,  Transmission  and  Measurement;  Heat,  Fuel, 
and  Steam;  The  Steam  Boiler  and  Accessories;  Steam  Engines 
and  their  Parts;  Steam  Engine  Indicator;  Gas  and  Gasoline 
Engines;  Materials;  their  Properties  and  Strength;  Together 
with  a  Discussion  of  the  Fundamental  Experiments  in  Elec- 
tricity, and  an  Explanation  of  Dynamos,  Motors,  Batteries, 
etc.,  and  Rules  for  Calculating  Sizes  of  Wires.    By  Stephen 


22    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Roper.  15th  edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  E.  R. 
Keller,  M.  E.,  and  C.  W.  Pike,  B.  S.  With  numerous 
Illustrations.    Pocket-book  form.    Leather  $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines: 

Including  the  Modeling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Man- 
agement of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With 
Illustrations.  By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Sixth  Edition. 
i2mo.,  tucks,  glit  edge  $3-50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive: 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the 
Construction,  Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives. 
By  Stephen  Roper.  Eleventh  Edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt 
edge  $2.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines: 

With  Illustrations.  By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Fourth 
Edition,  i2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  $3.50 

ROPER. — Instructions  and  Suggestions  for  Engineers  and 
Firemen : 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    i8mo.,  Morocco  $2.00 

ROPER. — Questions   and   Answers   for   Stationary  and 
Marine  Engineers  abd  Electricians: 

With  a  Chapter  of  What  to  Do  in  Case  of  Accidents.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Sixth  Edition,  Rewritten  and 
Greatly  Enlarged  by  Edwin  R.  Keller,  M.  E.,  and  Clayton 
W.  Pike,  B.  A.  306  pp.  Morocco,  pocketbook  form,  gilt 
edges  • . .  .$2.00 

ROPER.— The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.    i2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.  $2.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler: 

By  Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  Ninth  Edition,  with  Illus- 
trations.   i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  $2.00 

ROPER.— The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book: 

Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on 
which  the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  based.  By 
Stephen  Roper,  Engineer.  160  Illustrations,  363  pages. 
i8mo.,  tuck  $2.50 

ROSE.— The  Complete  Practical  Machinist: 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  DriUing,  Taps 
and  Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of 
Tools,  Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  work,  Machine  Tools,  etc. 
By  Joshua  Rose.  395  Engravings.  Nineteenth  Edition, 
greatly  Enlarged  with  New  and  Valuable  Matter.  i2mo., 
504  pages  $2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 

Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  23 


Drawing  Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  practical 
Mechanical  Drawing,  together  with  ^  Examples  in  Simple 
Geometry  and  Elementary  Mechanism,  including  Screw 
Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical  Motions,  Engines  and 
Boilers.  By  Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  330  En- 
gravings.   8vo.    313  pages  $3-50 

ROSE.— The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of 
the  operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement, 
and  illustrating  the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions 
by  examples  carefully  selected  from  the  most  recent  and 
successful  practice.  By  Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  35  Engravings  $1.00 

ROSE.— Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination, 
for  the  Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  In- 
spectors; and  embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations 
necessary  in  Designing  or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By 
Joshua  Rose,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  73  Engravings.  250 
pages.    8vo  $2.00 

ROSS. — The   Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,   Mineralogy  and 
Geology: 

Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many 
Working  Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus. 
By  Lieut.  Colonel  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120 
Illustrations.    i2mo  $2.00 

SCHRIBER.— The  Coniplete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 

A  Concise  Compendiun  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages, 
Wagons,  and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the 
Various  Branches,  including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornament- 
ing, Striping,  Varnishing,  and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Re- 
cipes for  Mixing  Colors.    73  Illustrations.    177  pp.  i2mo. 

$1.00 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture: 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Build- 
ing, containing  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By 
Edward  Shaw,  Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on 
Gothic  Architecture,  etc.  By  Thomas  W.  Silloway  and 
George  M.  Harding,  Architects.  The  whole  illustrated  by 
102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper.  Eleventh  Edi- 
tion.   4to  $5.00 

SHERRATT.— The  Elements  of  Hand-Railing: 

Simplified  and  Explained  in  Concise  Problems  that  are  Easily 
Understood.  The  whole  illustrated  with  Thirty-eight  Ac- 
curate and  Original  Plates,  Founded  on  Geometrical  Principles, 
and  showing  how  to  Make  Rail  Without  Centre  Joints,  Mak- 
ing Better  Rail  of  the  Same  Material,  with  Half  the  Labor, 


24    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


and  Showing  How  to  Lay  Out  Stairs  of  all  Kinds.    By  R.  J. 

Sherratt.    Folio  $2 . 50 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and 
Location,  for  Young  Engineers: 

By  W.  F.  Shunr,  C.  E.    i2mo.    Full  bound  pocket-book 

form  $2.00 

SLOANE.— Home  Experiments  in  Science: 

By  T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane,  E.  M.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  Illustrated 
by  91  Engravings.    12  mo  $1.00 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture: 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm- 
houses, with  Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gar- 
dening, Furniture,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200 
Engravings.    By  Samuel  Sloan,  Architect.    8vo  $2.00 

SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk, 
Cotton,  Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods;  containing 
nearly  800  Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Padding;  and  the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and 
Handkerchiefs,  and  the  various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the 
different  styles  of  such  work.  By  David  Smith,  Pattern 
Dyer.    i2mo  $1.00 

SMITH.— A  Manual  of  Political  Economy: 

By  E.  Peshine  Smith.  A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added 
a  full  Index.    i2mo  $1.25 

SMITH. — Parks  and  Pleasure-Grounds: 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public 
Parks,  and  Gardens.  By  Charles  H.  J.  Smith,  Landscape 
Gardener  and  Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.    i2mo  $2.00 

SNIVELY.— The    Elements    of    Systematic  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis: 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.  By  John  H.  Snively,  Phr.  D. 
i6mo  $2.00 

STOKES.— The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Com- 
panion : 

Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet 
Work;  Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dye- 
ing and  Staining  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc. 
Directions  for  Lacquering,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to 
make  French  Polish,  Glues,  Cements,  and  Compositions; 
with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  workmen  generally.  By 
J,  Stokes.  Illustrated,  A  New  Edition,  with  an  Appendix 
upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing,  etc., 
etc.    i2mo  $1.25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS: 

Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  25 


of  Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines 
for  Testing  Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in 
service.  By  Officers  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S. 
Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Illustrated 
by  25  large  steel  plates.    Quarto  $3-00 

SULZ. — A  Treatise  on  Beverages: 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  Instructions  for 
Laboratory^  Work  with  Original  Practical  Recipes  for  all 
kinds  of  Carbonated  Drinks,  Mineral  Waters,  Flavoring 
Extracts,  Syrups,  etc.  By  Charles  Herman  Sulz,  Tech- 
nical  Chemist  and   Practical   Bottler.    Illustrated   by  428 


Engravings.    818  pp.    8vo  $7-50 

SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science: 

By  David  Syme.    i2mo  $2.00 

TABLES  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  ROUND,  SQUARE 
AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC. 

By  Measurement.    Cloth  63 


TEMPLETON.— The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and 
the  Steam-Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for 
the  Use  of  Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  William 
Templeton,  Engineer.    i2mo  $1.00 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A  Concise  Hand-book  on  Tool-Steel  in  General.  Its  Treat- 
ment in  the  Operations  of  Forging,  Annealing,  Hardening, 
Tempering,  etc.,  and  the  x^ppliances  Therefor.  By  Otto 
Thallner,  Manager  in  Chief  of  the  Tool-Steel  Works,  Bis- 
marckhutte,  Germany.  From  the  German  by  William  T. 
Brannt.  Illustrated  by  69  Engravings.  194  pages.  8vo. 
1902  $2.00 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation 
of  Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing. 
Elaborated  from  personal  experience  by  Julius  E.  Thausing, 
Professor  at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural 
Institute,  Modling,  near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  William  T.  Brannt.  Thoroughly  and  elaborately 
edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and  according  to  the 
latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  Schwarz  and  Dr. 
A.  H.  Bauer.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.  815 
pages  $10.00 

TOMPKINS.— Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil: 

Cotton:  Planting,  Cultivating,  Harvesting  and  Preparation 
for  Market.  Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills:  Organization,  Construc- 
tion and  Operation.  Cattle  Feeding:  Production  of  Beef 
and  Dairy  Products,  Cotton  Seed  Meal  and  Hulls  as  Stock 


26    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Feed.  Fertilizers:  Manufacture,  Manipulation  and  Uses. 
By  D.  A.  Tompkins.    8vo.    494  pp.    Illustrated  $7.50 

TOMPKINS.— Cotton  Mill,  Commercial  Features: 

A  Text-Book  for  the  Use  of  Textile  Schools  and  Investors. 
With  Tables  showing  Cost  of  Machinery  and  Equipments 
for  Mills  making  Cotton  Yarns  and  Plain  Cotton  Cloths.  By 
D.  A.  Tompkins.    8vo.    240  pp.     Illustrated  $5.00 

TOMPKINS.— Cotton  Mill  Processes  and  Calculations: 

An  Elementary  Text-Book  for  the  Use  of  Textile  Schools  and 
for  Home  Study.  By  D.  A.  Tompkins.  312  pp.  8vo. 
Illustrated  $5.00 

turner;s  (the  companion:) 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccen- 
tric Turning;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  In- 
struments; and  Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,. 
Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and  Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and 
Instructions  for  working  them.    i2mo  $1.00 

VAN  CLE VE.— The  English  and  American  Mechanic: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Over  Three  Thousand  Receipts, 
Rules,  and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic 
and  Manufacturer.  By  B.  Frank  Van  Cleve.  Illustrated. 
500  pp.    i2mo  $2.00 

VAN  DER  BURG.— School  of  Painting  for  the  Imitation 
of  Woods  and  Marbles: 

A  Complete,  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Art  and  Craft  of  Grain- 
ing and  Marbling  with  the  Tools  and  Appliances.  36  Plates. 
Folio,  12x20  inches  $6. 00 

VILLE.— The  School  of  Chemical  Manures: 

Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents. 
From  the  French  of  M.  Geo.  Ville,  by  A.  A.  Fesquet, 

Chemist  and  Engineer.    With  Illustrations.    l2mo  I1.25 

VOGDES.— The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket-Com- 
panion and  Price- Book: 
Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Deci- 
mals, Duodecimals,  Geometry  and  Mensuration;  with  Tables 
of  United  States  Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strength,  etc.,  of 
Iron,  Wood,  Stone,  Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quanti- 
ties of  Materials  in  given  Sizes  and  Dimensions  of  Wood, 
Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete  Bills  of  Prices  for 
Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also.  Rules  for  Computing 
and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Painting, 
Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
Frank  W.  Vogdes,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged, 
Revised,  and  Corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full- 
bound,  pocketbook  form,  gilt  edges  $2.00 

Cloth  $1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE  27 


WAHNSCHAFFE.— A  Guide  to  the  Scientific  Examina- 
tion of  Soils: 

Comprising  Select  Methods  of  Mechanical  and  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Physical  Investigation.  Translated  from  the 
German  of  Dr.  F.  Wahnschaffe.  With  additions  by  Wil- 
liam T.   Brannt.    Illustrated  by  25   Engravings.  i2mo. 

177  pages  $1.50 

WARE.— The  Sugar  Beet: 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe, 
Varieties  of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage 
Seeds  and  Sowing,  Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvest- 
ing, Transportation,  Conservation,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the 
Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.    By  Lewis  S.  Ware,    C.  E., 

M.  E.    Illustrated  by  ninety  Engravings.    8vo   .$2,00 

WARN.— The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc. 
Containing  a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems;  also  Prac- 
tical and  Simple  Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns 
required  in  the  different  branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By 
Reuben  H.  Warn,  Practical  Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  Instructions  for  Boiler-Mak- 
ing, Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids,  Rules  for  Calculat- 
ing the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and  Steel,  Tables 
of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  $2.00 
WARNER. — New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for 
the  Computation  of  Earth- work: 
Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final 
Estimates,  of  Students  in  Engineering  and  of  Contractors 
and  other  non-professional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with 
an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Practical  Treatise;  Part  II.  A 
Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix  Containing  Notes  to 
the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explanations  of  the  Con- 
struction of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a  Treatise 
upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
By  John  Warner,  A.  M.,  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineer. 

Illustrated  by  14  Plates.    8vo  $3.00 

WATSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe: 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all 
kinds,  Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring, 
and  French  Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various 
methods  practised  to  produce  Elaborate  work  with  dispatch, 
and  at  Small  Expense.  By  Egbert  P.  Watson,  Author  of 
"The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and  En- 
gineers."   Illustrated  by  78  Engravings  $1.00 

WATSON. — ^The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists 
and  Engineers: 
Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills, 


28    HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 


Lathe  Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work 
generally,  with  the  most  economical  Speed  for  the  same;  the 
Results  verified  by  Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise, 
and  on  the  floor.  Together  with  Workshop  Management, 
Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam  Engine,  Boilers,  Gears, 
Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  Egbert  P.  Watson.  Illustrated  by 
eighty-six  Engravings.    i2mo  $2.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar, 
Crystallizing,  Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods: 

And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  including  Methods 
for  Manufacturing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined 
Sugar  Goods.  A  New  and  Enlarged  Edition,  with  an  Appen- 
dix on  Cocoa,  Chocolate,  Chocolate  Confections,  etc.  196 
pages.    i2mo.    (1903.)  $1.50 

WILL. — Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis: 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis. 
By  Professor  Heinrich  Will,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third 
American,  from  the  eleventh  German  Edition.  Edited  by 
Charles  F.  Himes,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science, 
Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.    8vo  $1.00 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam: 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation  and 
Explosion.  By  Charles  Wye  Williams,  A.  1.  C.  E.  Illus- 
trated.   8vo  $2.00 

WILSON.— The  Practical  Tool-Maker  and  Designer: 

A  Treatise  upon  the  Designing  of  Tools  and  Fixtures  for 
Machine  Tools  and  Metal  Working  Machinery,  Comprising 
Modern  Examples  of  Machines  with  Fundamental  Designs 
for  Tools  for  the  Actual  Production  of  the  work;  Together 
with  Special  Reference  to  a  Set  of  Tools  for  Machining  the 
Various  Parts  of  a  Bicycle.  Illustrated  by  189  Engravings 
(1898)  $2.50 

CONTENTS:  Introductory,  Chapter  I.  Modern  Tool  Room  and 
Equipment.  11.  Files,  Their  Use  and  Abuse.  IIL  Steel  and  Tempering. 
IV.  Making  Jigs.  V.  Milling  Machine  Fixtures.  VI.  Tools  and  Fixtures 
for  Screw  Machines.  VII.  Broaching.  VIII.  Punches  and  Dies  for  Cut- 
ting and  Drop  Press.  IX.  Tools  for  Hollow-Ware.  X.  Embossing:  Metal, 
Coin  and  Stamped  Sheet-Metal  Ornaments.  XI.  Drop  Forging.  XII- 
Solid  Drawn  Shells  or  Ferrules;  Cupping  or  Cutting,  and  Drawing;  Break- 
ing Down  Shells.  XIII.  Annealing,  Pickling,  and  Cleaning.  XIV.  Tools 
for  Draw  Bench.  XV.  Cutting  and  Assembling  Pieces  by  Means  of  Rat- 
chet Dial  Plates  at  One  Operation.  XVI.  The  Header.  XVII.  Tools  for 
Fox  Lathe.  XVIII.  Suggestions  for  a  set  of  Tools  for  Machining  the  Va- 
rious Parts  of  a  Bicycle.  XIX.  The  Plater's  Dynamo.  XX.  Conclu- 
sion— With  a  Few  Random  Ideas.    Appendix.    Index.  , 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transaction  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By 
S.  W.  WoRSSAM,  Jr.  Illustrated  by  Eighteen  large  Plates. 
8vo  $1.50 


BRANNT'S  "SOAP  MAKER'S  HAND  BOOK." 


The  most  helpful  and  up-to-date  hook  on  the  Art  of  Soap 
Making  in  the  English  language. 

In  one  volume,  8vo,  535  pages,  illustrated  by  5d  engravings. 
Price  $6.00  net,  Free  of  Postage  to  any  Address  in  the  World, 
or  hy  Express  C.  O.  D.  freight  paid  to  any  Address  in  the 
United  States  or  Canada, 


PUBLISHED  APRIL,  1912. 


THE 

SOAP  MAKER'S  HAND  BOOK 

OF 

MATERIALS,  PROCESSES  AND  RECEIPTS  FOR 
EVERY  DESCRIPTION  OF  SOAP 

INCLUDING 

FATS,  FAT  OILS,  AND  FATTY  ACIDS  ;  EXAMINATION  OF  FATS  AND  OILS  ; 
ALKALIES  ;  TESTING  SODA  AND  POTASH  ;  MACHINES  AND  UTENSILS  J 
HARD  SOAPS  ;  SOFT  SOAPS  ;  TEXTILE  SOAPS  ;  WASHING  POWDERS 
AND  ALLIED  PRODUCTS  ;  TOILET  SOAPS,  MEDICATED  SOAPS, 
AND  SOAP  SPECIALTIES  ;  ESSENTIAL  OILS  AND  OTHER 
PERFUMING  MATERIALS  ;  TESTING  SOAPS. 

EDITED  CHIEFLY  FROM  THE  GERMAN  OF 

DR.  C.  DEITE,    A.  ENGELHARDT,    F.  WILTNER, 

AND  NUMEROUS  OTHER  EXPERTS. 

WITH  ADDITIONS 
BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 

EDITOR  OF  "THE  TECHNO  CHEMICAL  RECEIPT  BOOK." 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  FIFTY-FOUR  ENGRAVINGS. 
SECOND  EDITION.  REVISED  AND  IN  GREAT  PART  RE-WRITTEN. 


KIRKS  CUPOLA  FURNACE. 


An  Eminently f  Practical^  JJp-to-Date  Book^  by  an  Expert, 
Third  Thoroughly  Mevised  and  Partly  Me-wiHtten  Edition. 
In  one  volume,  Svo.,  482  pages,  illustrated  by  one  hundred 
and  side  engravitigs.  Price  $S»50,  Free  of  Postage  to  any 
Address  in  the  World,  or  by  Express  C.  O,  D.,  freight  paid  to 
any  Address  in  the  United  States  or  Canada, 


PUBLISHED  AUGUST,  1910. 


THE  CUPOLA  FURNACE 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

OF 

FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS: 

COMPRISING 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  CUPOLAS  AND  METHODS  OF  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGE- 
MENT; TUYERES;  MODERN  CUPOLAS;  CUPOLA  FUELS;  FLUXING  OF  IRON;  GETTING 
UP  CUPOLA  STOCK;    RUNNING  A  CONTINUOUS  STREAM;  SCIENTIFICALLY 
DESIGNED  cupolas;  SPARK-CATCIIING  DEVICES;   BLAST-PIPES  AND 
BLAST;   BLOWERS;    FOUNDRY  TRAM  RAIL,  ETC.,  ETC. 

BY 

EDWARD  KIRK, 

PRACTICAL  MOULDER  AND  MELTER,  CONSULTING  EXPERT  IN  MELTING. 

Author  of  "  The  Founding  of  Metals^''  and  of  Numerous  Papers  on  Cupola  Practice, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SIX  ENGRAVINGS. 

THIRD  THOROUGHLY  REVISED  AND  PARTLY  RE-WRiTTEN  EDITION. 


KIRK'S  FOUNDRY  IRONS. 


A  Practical,  Up-'to-Date  Book,  by  the  well  known  Eocpert, 
In,  one  volume,  8vo,  294  jMiges,  illustrated.    Price  $3.00  net, 
Free  of  Postage  to  any  Address  in  the  World,  or  hy  Express 
<7.  O.  JO,,  freight  paid  to  any  Address  in  the  United  States  or 
Canada, 


PUBLISHED  JUNE,  1911. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON 

FOUNDRY  IRONS: 

COMPRISING 

PIG  IRON,  AND  FRACTURE  GRADING  OF  PIG  AND  SCRAP  IRONS  ; 
SCRAP  IRONS  ;  MIXING  IRONS  ;  ELEMENTS  AND  METALLOIDS  ; 
GRADING  IRON  BY  ANALYSIS  ;  CHEMICAL  STANDARDS 
FOR  IRON  CASTINGS  ;  TESTING  CAST  IRON  ;  SEMI- 
STEEL  ;  MALLEABLE  IRON;  ETC.,  ETC. 


BY 

EDWARD  KIRK, 

PRACTICAL  MOULDER  AND  MELTER;  CONSULTING  EXPERT  IN  MELTING- 
AUTHOR  OF  "the  cupola  furnace,"  and  of  numerous 

PAPERS  ON  CUPOLA  PRACTICE. 


ILLUSTRATED 


BRANNTS  DRY  CLEANER. 


The  only  book  including  Hat  Cleaning  and  Meno- 
vating  in  any  language,  in  one  volmne,  12mo,  371 
pages,  illustrated.  Price  $2.50  7iet,  Free  of  postage 
to  any  address  in  the  world,  or  by  express  freight 
paid  to  any  address  in  the  Unifed  States  or  Canada. 

PUBLISHED  OCTCEER,  1911. 


THE  PRACTICAL 

DRY  CLEANER,  SCOURER,  AND 
GARMENT  DYER: 

COMPRISING 

DRY,  CHEMICAL,  OR  FRENCH  CLEANING;  PURIFICATION  OF  BENZINE; 
REMOVAL  OF  STAINS,  OR  SPOTTING;  WET  CLEANING;  FINISHING 
CLEANED  FABRICS;  CLEANING  AND  DVEING  FURS,  SKIN  RUGS 
AND  MATS;  CLEANING  AND  DYKING  FEATHERS;  CLEANING 
AND  RENOVATING  FELT,  STRAW  AND  PANAMA  HATS; 
BLEACHING  AND  DVEING  STRAW  AND  STRAW  HATS; 
CLEANING  AND  DVEING  GLOVES;  GARMENT 
DYEING;   STRIPPING;  ANALYSIS  OF 
TEXTILE  FABRICS. 

EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 

EDITOR  OF  "the  TECHNO-CHEMICAL  KECEFPT  BOOK." 

FOURTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  FORTY-ONE  ENGRAVINGS. 

PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO, 
INDUSTRL^L  PLBLISHEES,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810  WALNUT  .^  TREET. 

ion. 


8H- 63-5/08 


